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What to Eat and When 



By 
Susanna Cocroft 

Author of 
Let 's Be Healthy," ''The Woman Worth While" 
11 Growth in Silence," etc. 



Fourth Edition 
With Additions and Revisions to Date 



Illustrated 



G. P. Putnam's Sons 

New York and London 

Hbe Knickerbocker press 
1916 



urt^i 



Copyright, 1916 

BY 

SUSANNA COCROFT 



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DEC -I 1916 



Ube "fenfcfcerbocfcer {press, "toew ll?ovft 

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PREFACE 

THE subject of dietetics has only of late years begun 
to come into its own. For centuries it was 
thought that the body was a thing to be neglected and 
despised ; that it was a clog to the soul. The teachings 
of dogma and the life of the hermit and the ascetic 
glorified the mortification of the body and the eleva- 
tion of the soul. 

The study of the functions of life and the manner 
in which those functions are upheld and vivified — 
the development of the sciences of Biology and Physi- 
ology — have placed the relations of the body and its 
inhabitant the soul on a more consistent and rational 
basis. It is coming to be recognized that the mind 
cannot function to its highest efficiency in a body 
below par; that in order to work harmoniously 
and to accomplish the most for humanity, the sound 
mind must dwell in a sound body, with all of its 
functions active, its organs in vigorous condition, 
kept so by a thorough assimilation and a forceful 
circulation. These are to be secured by means of 
daily exercise, abundance of fresh air, and healthful, 
happy, constructive thoughts. 

It has been well said that the distinguishing feature 
between man and other animals is the fact that he 
is a cooking animal. Until he discovered fire man's 
subsistence was little more than that of the brute. 

iii 



iv Preface 

Out of his discovery of the varied uses of this element 
came modern civilization. Much of this advance 
was made possible through the added strength of 
mind that was given man by a more varied diet. 
His limited raw diet gave little scope to his inventive 
faculties. From the discovery of the possibilities in 
cooked food his mind was stimulated to research in 
other directions. With the lessened need for vigorous 
mastication, however, the degeneration of man's 
teeth began and we are slowly learning now that 
exercise for the teeth and gums is as necessary for 
their health as it is for the rest of the body. 

Dietetics is, in itself, both an Art and a Science. 
Food can be prepared so tastefully and its appearance 
made so pleasing as to become a fit subject for a 
painter. But the selection of food that shall give the 
body all the elements it needs in its work of growth 
and repair, with the greatest economy of effort, of 
purse, of time, and of energy, needs the trained judg- 
ment, the knowledge of comparative values and of 
chemical combinations possessed by a scientist. 
This is especially true from the fact that so many 
bodily ills result from a faulty digestion, due either to 
the food itself or to the condition of the organs which 
must handle the food. 

The subject is so vast and its ramifications so many 
that all the resources of chemistry own themselves 
baffled at some of its intricacies. However, an in- 
telligent working knowledge of the processes under- 
gone by food in its progress through the body, and its 
transformation into vital force, can be attained by 
anyone. 

This book is the outcome of years of experience in 
correcting bodily ills caused by wrong hygienic 



Preface v 

habits. It has been written out of a sincere desire to 
awaken the every-day individual to the important 
relation that food bears to his well-being. 

Much has been written on this subject by medical 
men for the medical profession, in language too 
technical for the layman. It is believed that in this 
book the layman will find a fund of information 
hitherto not available to him, in language stripped of 
technicalities, plain and easily understood. I have 
tried to make it logical and interesting. 

When the American people become convinced that 
a thing is needed they generally "go after" it, and 
sooner or later the desired thing is attained. When 
they arouse themselves to see that the food they eat 
is pure, well prepared, and taken into digestive 
systems vigorous by means of proper exercise and 
fresh air, a new and far more virile race will be the 
outcome. 

Acknowledgment is here made of the valuable 
assistance of Winfield S. Hall, Ph.D., M.D., Professor 
of Physiology in the Northwestern Medical School, 
Lecturer, and Author of Nutrition and Dietetics; of 
Alida Frances Pattee, late Instructor in Dietetics, 
Bellevue Training School for Nurses, Bellevue Hos- 
pital, New York City, Author of Practical Dietetics. 

The tables of Food Values and the classification 
of foods are kindly furnished by Dr. Hall and used 
by the courtesy of his publishers, while a few of the 
recipes are generously furnished by Miss Pattee. 
Recognition is also made of the good work of Miss 
Helen Hammel, former dietitian in Wesley Hospital, 
Chicago, in the preparation of some of the recipes. 

The Author. 



INTRODUCTION 

THE problem of proper nutrition for the body is as 
vital as any study affecting the morals, health, 
and consequent power of a nation, since on the quality 
and quantity of food they assimilate, depend the 
sustenance, health, and strength of its citizens. 

The food eaten by a nation largely determines the 
character of that nation. 

No subject is so vital to the individual, to the family, 
the community, the nation, as health. No education 
is so vital as a knowledge of foods, sanitation, hygiene. 

Health is the basis of happiness and the attainment 
of happiness is man's chief pursuit. The very foun- 
dation of national life is the education of its citizens 
in its preservation. The nation seeks prosperity 
and happiness — yet true prosperity is based on these 
fundamentals. 

Money can be expended for no object which will 
yield the nation, or the individual, greater returns than 
in the acquisition of a knowledge of how to keep well. 
Health specialists, in the future, will direct their work 
more to the prevention than to the cure of diseases. 

The strongest powers are those which most fully 
guard the health of their citizens. The endurance of 
an army lies in the strength of the individual soldier. 

The basic work for ''preparedness" is in building 
the bulwarks of physical strength and endurance. 



vm 



Introduction 



The study of life is of most vital interest. The 
enjoyment and maintenance of life is inbred. It is 
intuitive. The infant's first instinct is the preser- 
vation of life; almost immediately he seeks for 
nourishment. 

His body is an ever awakening wonder to him. He 
begins his education by testing his lungs, by studying 
his hands, his legs, and his flesh. 

The human race spends more time in providing 
nourishment for the body than in any other line of 
activity. Yet we are wasteful; we have not studied 
to make the food yield its greatest nourishment and 
the body its greatest efficiency. 

Unless the system is thoroughly nourished we miss 
much of the physical satisfaction of life; we miss the 
joys of mental development, the inspiration of soul, 
the sense of growth, of freedom, of expansion, and the 
self-satisfaction of accomplishing. The satisfaction 
resulting from greatest usefulness and the enjoyment 
of the results of usefulness, the greatest blessings and 
the largest measure of life come only to those whose 
nutriment is proper in quantity and quality, taken 
properly as to time, and is thoroughly assimilated, 
because both body and brain are thereby enabled to 
develop most fully. 

The enjoyment of vibrant life, of bodily efficiency, 
is far beyond the fancied joys of the intemperate or 
the ascetic. 

That one may thoroughly enjoy life in the freedom 
which comes from perfect activity of bodily functions, 
it is necessary that proper habits be formed, then the 
energy of thought is not constantly engaged in decid- 
ing what is best. Habit calls for no conscious expen- 
diture of energy. 



Introduction ix 

Nutrition is a broad subject. It means not only 
that the foods be supplied which contain elements 
required to rebuild body substance and to create heat 
and energy, but it embraces, also, the ability of the 
body to appropriate the foods to its needs. 

The study of nutrition in its full sense, therefore, 
must embrace not only foods, but anatomy and physi- 
ology (particularly of the digestive system). A 
knowledge of chemistry is also necessary that we may 
know the changes foods undergo in being converted 
into tissue, heat, and energy. 1 This science is known 
as Dietetics. 

Scientific research along the lines of electricity, 
psychology, metaphysics, medicine, and art has been 
tenaciously pursued for centuries; yet scientific study 
of the natural means of keeping the body in health, 
that the individual may be in physical, mental, and 
moral condition to enjoy and to profit by researches 
made in other lines, has been neglected. 

The entire framework of the body — bone, muscle, 
blood, brain, and nerve — as well as the heat and the 
mental and physical energy necessary for every mo- 
tion is supplied from food and drink, and from the 
oxygen breathed into the lungs. 

We are learning that derangements of the body are 
largely caused by injudicious eating, yet, vital as it is, 
the subject of foods, except in recent years, has not had 
a place in the courses of study in our public schools. 

1 It is impossible in this book to go into the anatomy and 
physiology of digestion exhaustively. The reader is respectfully 
referred to Miss Cocroft's book on Let's Be Healthy. This traces 
the food through the digestive canal, indicating the juices which 
act on it, putting it into the state in which it can be absorbed by 
the body and appropriated to its various uses. 



x Introduction 

We have given much attention to the "pound of 
cure," but insufficient attention to the "ounce of 
prevention." Man does not enjoy life to its full, 
nor do his physical or mental efforts yield him his 
best returns unless his system is thoroughly nourished. 

Formerly, the physician gave general directions, 
or none at all, as to the diet. His directions, when 
given, were often indefinite because the subject was 
not definitely understood, due to the fact that the 
course of instruction in medical colleges contained 
practically nothing on the subject of foods. This 
study is not in the curriculum of all of our medical 
colleges to-day. 

Our public-school curriculum contains no more 
important study than that of health and of the simple, 
hygienic laws which enable us to retain it. The sci- 
ence of foods in their relation to health, sanitation, 
and general hygiene should be among the foremost 
requirements of our public-school courses of study. 
Mothers' clubs will find no more interesting or profit- 
able study than Dietetics. 

It is coming to be widely recognized that a far 
larger number of diseases arise from the food habit 
than from the liquor habit. Many who look with 
contempt or pity on the victims of alcohol, are them- 
selves diseased of body through the unintelligent use 
of food. 

Habitual overeating not only produces diseases of 
the digestive organs, from overwork and excessive 
secretory activity, but also of the excretory and glan- 
dular system, as the kidneys and the liver, and may 
give rise to functional disturbances of the heart. 

Food, if taken in greater quantity than the digest- 
ive juices can handle, either passes out of the system 



Introduction xi 

without being absorbed or it ferments or decomposes, 
giving rise to constipation, diarrhea, or other intestinal 
disturbances. 

If the stomach and intestines are active and can 
handle the excess of food, its absorption beyond what 
the system requires overloads the blood and causes 
obesity or diseases of the skin and kidneys. It thus 
brings about abnormal deposits as in gout, or the cal- 
culi found in the kidney or the gall-bladder. Bilious- 
ness and congestion of the liver may follow, with 
constant headache, coated tongue, foul breath, and 
languor of body and of mind. 

Many habitually eat too much and take too little 
fluid, though, due to a greater spread of knowledge, 
overeating is becoming less common. 

On the other hand, an insufficient or illy balanced 
diet will bring in its train disorders of the system 
scarcely less harmful. A large number, particularly of 
young girls, take insufficient food, eat irregularly, and 
are undernourished. 

When one does not eat sufficient food or the proper 
kind and variety, the tissues of the digestive organs 
are undernourished and do their work imperfectly. 

The undernourished are usually those who work 
at high tension, those who worry, or those who do 
not get bodily exercise proportionate to the mental. 

Mental workers are liable to become preoccupied 
and forget to take food. Growing girls who are over- 
interested in studies, anxious concerning examinations, 
etc., neglect their meals. Parents are often to blame 
in these cases by unduly encouraging the intellectual 
effort. 

Members of some religious sects practice under- 
eating as a form of asceticism; many others from 



xii Introduction 

poverty are unable to procure a sufficient amount of 
food. 

Too many, if not the majority of those concerned 
with the purchase and preparation of food, under- 
stand but little of food values and the importance of 
their proper combination. No matter how simple 
the menu, it should embrace the elements the system 
needs for its complete sustenance. 

The problem of nutrition must be solved largely 
through chemistry. The health and efficiency of the 
individual and of the nation depend on careful study 
of the foods placed on the market, their chemical 
components, and their possible adulteration. 

Happily the United States Government, realizing 
that its power as a nation depends on the strength 
and health of its citizens, has established experimental 
and analytical food departments. As a result of the 
findings of the government chemists, there was en- 
acted in 1906, the Food and Drugs Act, which has 
raised the standard of food purity, by prescribing 
the conditions under which foods may be manufac- 
tured and sold. The law compels the maker of arti- 
ficially colored or preserved food products to correctly 
label his goods. The national law instigated the 
passage of various state laws, which have further 
helped to insure a supply of pure food products; 
yet we need other laws which shall have greater 
efficiency and wider scope. 

The strength of Germany as a nation is due very 
largely to the government supervision of foods manu- 
factured and imported. 

There is no more important branch of the United 
States Government than that which protects the 
health of its citizens. 



Introduction xiii 

The custom among some nations of retaining a 
physician to maintain the health of the family rather 
than to regain it, to avoid disease rather than to cure it, 
has its distinct advantages. 

We should not be satisfied with anything less than 
perfect health and we are beginning to realize that 
this perfect health is a possibility for almost every 
individual. 

In the maintenance of health, as well as in the cure 
of disease, diet is often more important than drugs. 

To-day, scientific knowledge of hygiene and of food 
values is within the reach of all, and every mother 
and teacher may learn how to guard the health of 
those in her charge. 

It is necessary to know the comparative values of 
foods as nutrient agents, in order to maintain our 
bodies in health and strength, and with economy of 
digestive effort, as well as efficiency. 

There is no study, therefore, more important than 
that of bodily nutrition, which comprises not only the 
right proportion of food and drink, but also the man- 
ner in which they must be prepared in order to yield 
the best returns under varying conditions — age, 
employment, health, and sickness. 

The body is certainly a marvelous machine! It is 
self-building, self-repairing, and, to a degree, self- 
regulating. 

It appropriates to its use foodstuffs for growth and 
for repair. 

It eliminates its waste. 

It supplies the energy for rebuilding, and eliminat- 
ing this waste. 

It directs its own emotions. 

It supplies the energy for these emotions. 



XIV 



Introduction 



It discriminates in the selection of food and casts 
out refuse and foodstuffs not needed. 

It forms brain cells and creates mental force with 
which to control the organism. 

It keeps in repair the nerves, which are the tele- 
graph wires connecting the brain with all parts of the 
body. 

It converts the potential energy in the food into 
heat with which to keep itself warm. 

Withal it is not left entirely free to do its work 
automatical^. It has within it a higher intel- 
ligence, a spiritual force, which may definitely 
hamper its workings by getting a wrong control of 
the telegraph wires, thus interfering with the di- 
gestion, the heart action, the lungs, and all meta- 
bolic changes. The right exercise of this higher 
intelligence, in turn, depends on the condition of 
the body, because when the mechanism of the body 
is out of repair it hampers mental and spiritual 
control. 

About one-third of the food eaten goes to maintain 
the life of the body in its incessant work of repairing 
and rebuilding, the remaining two-thirds being held 
in reserve for other activities. 

One of the most remarkable and the least under- 
stood of any of the assimilative and absorptive func- 
tions, is the ability shown by one part of the body to 
appropriate from the foods the elements necessary 
for its own rebuilding, while the same elements pass 
through other organs untouched. The body has the 
power, also, not only to make use of the foods, but to 
use up the blood tissue itself. Just how this is done 
is also a mystery. 

There is surely a great lesson in industry here, and 



Introduction xv 

one of the most profound studies in economics, physics, 
and chemistry. 

Habitual worriers use up force and become thin 
more quickly than those whose work is muscular. 
Those who spend their lives fretting over existing 
conditions, or worrying over things which never hap- 
pen, use up much brain force and create disagreeable 
conditions within, resulting in digestive ills. These 
again react on the body and continue the process of 
impoverishment of the tissues. 

Certain it is that improper foods affect the dispo- 
sition, retard the spiritual growth, and change the 
current of one's life and of the lives about one. There- 
fore the intelligent care of the body — the medium 
through which the soul communicates with material 
surroundings — is a Christian duty. 

"The priest with liver trouble and the parishioner 
with indigestion, do not evidence that skilled Christian 
living so essential to the higher life." 

Man has become so engrossed and hedged about 
with the complex demands of social, civic, and, domes- 
tic life, all of which call for undue energy and annoy- 
ance and lead him into careless or extravagant habits 
of eating and living, that he forgets to apply the intel- 
ligence which he puts into his business to the care of 
the machine which does the work. Yet the simple 
laws of nature in the care of the body are plainer and 
easier to follow than the complex habits which he 
forms. 

The "simple life" embraces the habits of eating 
as well as the habits of doing and of thinking. 

The whole problem of perfect health and efficient ac- 
tivity is in keeping the supply of assimilated food equal 
to the demand, in keeping a forceful circulation that the 



XVI 



Introduction 



nourishment may freely reach all tissues and the waste 
be eliminated, and in full breathing habits that sufficient 
oxygen be supplied to put the waste in condition for 
elimination. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 
PURPOSES OF FOOD 

PAGB 

Production of heat and energy; derivation of food 
elements; composition of the body; building 
and repair of cells; necessity of exercise; food 
elements as used in body building . . . 1-7 

CHAPTER II 

CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD ELEMENTS 

Definition of food stuffs, of foods; basis of classifica- 
tions of foods; tabulations of classes of foods and 
foodstuffs; proteins or tissue builders; carbonaceous 
foodstuffs; carbohydrates; fat; water; mineral 
salts 8-37 

CHAPTER III 

CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS 

Carbonaceous: roots and tubers, green vegetables, 
fruits; nitrogenous: flesh, fish, eggs; carbonitro- 
genous: cereals and cereal preparations, legumes, 
nuts, milk and milk products ; table of food values 38-1 02 

CHAPTER IV 

HEAT AND ENERGY 

BEVERAGES AND APPETIZERS 

Tea; coffee; cocoa and chocolate; lemonade and other 
fruit drinks; effervescing waters; condiments and 
spices; vinegars; sauces; food adulteration; pre- 
servation of foods; heat and energy . . . 103-129 
xvii 



xviii Contents 

CHAPTER V 

repair and elimination of waste 
(metabolism) 

PAGE 

Chemical changes in foods in body; work of assimila- 
tion; food reserve; digestion, its processes and 
ferments; absorption of food; economy in food; 
selection of foods for need of body; mouth and 
nasal passages ...... 130-150 

CHAPTER VI 
ORGANS AND CONDITIONS AFFECTING DIGESTION 

The liver, the muscles, the nerves, the kidneys, the skin, 
the intestines, the blood, summary of work of 
organs and tissues; season and climate; habit and 
regularity of eating; frequency of meals; exercise 
and breathing; ventilation; fatigue; sleep; influ- 
ence of thought; the circulation; gum chewing; 
tobacco and alcohol 1 51-184 

CHAPTER VII 

COOKING 

Importance of proper cooking; purposes of cooking; 
meats; cereals and cereal products; vegetables; 
fruits 185-199 

CHAPTER VIII 

FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF THE SYSTEM 

Elements determining quantity of food necessary; 
selection of dietary food required by workers at 
various occupations; average requirement; energy 
derived from various foods; mixed diet versus 
vegetarian diet ...... 200-215 

CHAPTER IX 

DIETS 

Constructing balanced meals; in sedentary occupa- 
tions; the girl or boy from thirteen to twenty-one; 
the athlete; the laboring man; condition of "age"; 



Contents xix 

PAGE 

model diets; tables of use in making up a balanced 

diet 216-241 

CHAPTER X 

DIET IN ABNORMAL CONDITIONS 

Importance of proper diet in conditions of disease; 
anemia: indigestion or dyspepsia; gastritis, 
dilatation of the stomach; intestinal disorders; 
constipation; derangements of the liver; gall 
stones; neuralgia; kidney derangements; excess 
of uric acid; asthma; tuberculosis; neurasthenia; 
skin diseases; when traveling; in convalescence; 
leanness; obesity 242-304 

CHAPTER XI 
RECIPES FOR FOODS FOR INVALIDS AND SEMI-INVALIDS 

Waters; fruit juices; liquid foods; farinaceous bever- 
ages ; meat juices ; semi-solid foods ; gruels ; souffles 305-3 19 

CHAPTER XII 
INFANT FEEDING 

Problem of correct feeding; breast feeding; wet nurs- 
ing; contra-indications to nursing; anatomy and 
physiology of the infant; intestinal disturbance; 
times of feeding; water; normal development in 
the breast-fed ; weaning ; artificial feeding ; bacteri- 
ology; composition of human milk; top-milk; top- 
milk mixture; certified milk; milk modifications; 
sterilizing and pasteurizing; comparative analysis 
of milks and infant foods; gruels; vomiting; colic; 
the stools in infancy; constipation; diarrhea; 
anemia rickets ; scurvy ; feeding the second year . 320-356 
APPENDIX 

Measures and Weights 357-359 

Index 361-366 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Susanna Cocroft . . . Frontispiece 
Diagrammatic Representation of Villus . 146 



What to Eat and When 



CHAPTER I 

PURPOSES OF FOOD 

THE purposes of food are : 
To supply the material out of which the body 
may rebuild the tissues. 

To produce heat, and to liberate muscular and 
mental energy. 

Every particle of body substance is constantly 
changing. The new material for cells and tissues, the 
substance to supply the energy needed in the meta- 
bolic work of tearing down and rebuilding, the energy 
used in the digestive process of converting the food 
into condition to be assimilated, and the energy used 
in muscular, brain, and nerve movement must all be 
supplied by food. 

Every effort of the brain in the process of thinking, 
every motion, and every muscular movement requires 
energy which the food must supply. 

The body is composed of a vast number of cells 
varying according to the tissue or organ in which they 
are found. The characteristic of all living matter is 
that it constantly reproduces itself. Cells perform 

i 



2 What to Eat and When 

their appointed work, wear out, and must be replaced 
by new ones or derangements follow. 

The new cells constantly being formed, increase 
in size and in so doing push the wornout, dying, and 
dead cells out of the way. The process of building 
and eliminating continues within the body and on its 
surface every instant of life. 

An idea of the number of dead cells constantly being 
thrown off from every part of the body may be gained 
by noticing the amount of dead skin cast off. The fine 
scales of "scarf" or "dead" skin, which we easily rub 
off in a friction bath, are composed of these dead cells 
which have been crowded out by the hosts of vital 
cells constantly forming beneath. The process is the 
same in every tissue and organ. The dead or worn- 
out matter within the body is burned by oxygen and 
put in condition to be carried by the blood to the or- 
gans of elimination, the kidneys, intestines, lungs, 
and skin. 

Much waste is eliminated in liquid form through 
the sweat glands. It is said that stokers throw off 
four pounds of water and waste a day through the 
skin. 

In the growing child the process of building and of 
eliminating is active and rapid. In the youth it is 
less rapid, in the adult still less, but unless the process 
is kept active, stagnation and death ensue. 

Daily exercise is necessary to keep up the body activi- 
ties; yet very few take the trouble to secure daily a com- 
plete, thorough circulation of blood, especially through 
the vital organs and the deeper tissues. Perfect circula- 
tion is the key-note of health. 

Activity of any kind necessitates the expenditure 
of energy. The process is a chemical one and in all 



Purposes of Food 3 

chemical processes heat is necessary to cause the 
decomposition of elements and their recomposition 
into different substances. 

Heat in its turn has two functions. It enables the 
chemical changes to be carried on which fit the food 
for the use of the various tissues, and it burns to an 
ash the wornout products of the body's activity, 
fitting them for elimination. 

It keeps the tissues flexible and the secretions fluid ; 
coagulation takes place when the secretions become 
cold. 

As previously stated, food in the body, then, is 
needed for two purposes: 

(1) to build and maintain the cell until its work is 
done; 

(2) to furnish the heat necessary to decompose 
the food into its elements, and to produce the energy 
by which all the body processes are carried on. 

That the food may be appropriated by 
the body it must be not only proper in kind EJ 00 
and quantity, but the body must also be 
in condition to digest, absorb, and assimilate it and 
to eliminate the waste, otherwise the body needs are 
not met. 

It is the nourishment which the body assimilates and 
appropriates to its needs which counts in food economy, 
not necessarily the amount consumed. 

Therefore if the food is to economically serve its 
purpose, the body must be in a condition to digest and 
assimilate it — this condition depends largely on perfect 
circulation, correct position of organs, and correct 
breathing habits. 

Of the fifteen to twenty substances contained in 
foods and comprised in the body, the principal ones 



4 What to Eat and When 

are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, chlorin, sodi- 
um, potassium, magnesium, iron, calcium, phosphorus, 
and sulphur. The differences in the forms of matter 
lie in the proportions in which these elements are 
combined. 

Those containing the largest proportion of nitrogen 
are called Nitrogenous foods or Protein — such as meat, 
eggs, and some vegetables. 

Those containing the largest proportion of carbon 
are known as Carbonaceous — such as cereals, sugar, and 
fat. 

The four food elements, indispensable to life, either 
of plant or animal, are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and 
nitrogen. 

Carbon combined with oxygen forms carbon dioxid. 

Oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxid largely form 
the air. 

Oxygen and hydrogen form water. 

Calcium, iron, magnesium, sodium, and potassium 
are used in the formation of the various tissues and 
secretions of the body. 

The substances contained in living organisms are 
the same as those in inorganic matter, only in differ- 
ent complexities as appropriated to the needs of each 
organism. 

The difference between living and non-living matter 
is in the relative proportion and arrangement of the 
same elements. 

Before it is fit to supply the needs of the body, the 
raw material must undergo a chemical change. 

It has been demonstrated by scientific investiga- 
tion that no unorganized elements, such as pure nitro- 
gen, pure iron or magnesium, are assimilated by the 
system and converted into its various structures. 



Purposes of Food 5 

While the body needs carbon, it cannot use coal; 
it needs nitrogen, yet it cannot appropriate it to re- 
building bone and muscle, until, by chemical action 
with other elements, it has been converted into com- 
plex substances called proteins. 

The muscles, ligaments, and labor-performing 
structures contain the largest amount of nitrogen. 

The fat contains the largest amount of carbon. 

The brain, the nerves, and the bones contain the 
largest proportion of phosphorus compounds. 

Yet, while the brain contains phosphorus, and the 
tissues nitrogen, the brain cannot be built up by eating 
elementary phosphorus, nor the muscles by pure nitro- 
gen, but compounds rich in phosphorus or nitrogen 
may be utilized. 

Plants use the simple compounds of the earth, air, 
and soil, and, within their own cells, build them up 
into such complex substances as starch, sugar, protein, 
fat, and salts, putting them in condition for man and 
other animals to appropriate to their use. 

All plant life is compounded from the elements in 
the soil, air, and water, by the action of the sun's 
rays. The rays of heat and light store something of 
their power in latent heat and energy in these plant 
compounds. 

The end of plant life is the completion of its 
compounds — when it has matured them, the plant 
dies. 

All organic matter is thus formed by the action of 
the sun's rays on inorganic matter. 

The gluten of wheat is formed from the chemical 
union of nitrogen in the air and nitrogen in the soil 
with other substances. 

The starch of wheat and other grains is from carbon 



6 What to Eat and When 

which the plant has taken from the soil and combined 
with other substances. 

All meats are largely derived from plants which 
have appropriated the elements from the soil, water, 
and air. The chemical processes of the animal con- 
vert the energy latent in the plant foods into the more 
concentrated form of meat. The animal thus per- 
forms a part of the chemical work for man — the digest- 
ive organs of one animal convert the food contained 
in certain plants, into a substance more easily assimi- 
lated by another animal. 

Man would need to eat a large amount of nitrogen- 
containing plants in order to get as much protein 
as is contained in one egg or in a piece of lean meat 
the size of an egg. It is because the nitrogen is in 
such condensed form in meat and eggs that one is 
likely to take more than the system can handle, if 
he eats too freely of these two foods, particularly of 
meat. We will discuss this question more fully under 
"Proteins." 

Most domestic animals take their food elements 
from air and water, as well as from the compounds 
which the plants have formed, while wild animals and 
some domestic ones, such as hogs and chickens, make 
use of meat as well. 

The greater part of musele, nerve, and gland is 
composed of protein. 

When the muscles are exercised constantly they 
use up their protein and must have it resupplied, or 
the muscle substance will waste. When the muscles 
are exercised freely, as in the laborer, or the athlete, 
they need more building material. 

The skeleton is composed largely of deposited salts, 
as calcium. If, therefore, the growing child be not 



Purposes of Food 7 

supplied with a sufficient amount of this substance, 
the bones will be weak and liable to deformity and 
the teeth will be slow in coming or will be small and 
malformed. Children need foods rich in lime. 

The elements which supply heat and keep up mus- 
cular activity are starches, fats, and sugars. 

It must be apparent to every thoughtful person, 
that, since the nerves, muscles, and glands are com- 
posed largely of protein and the skeleton largely of 
calcium salts, in order to furnish the body with the 
elements necessary for growth and repair, all of these 
elements, as also the energy-producing substances, 
must be provided. 

Each individual, therefore, should learn how much he 
requires to replace his daily waste, both for rebuilding 
tissue and for supplying heat and energy. 

The day laborer, though he may do more muscular 
work than an athlete in training, expends scarcely 
any nervous energy. Therefore he needs less protein 
in his diet than one does who expends both nervous 
and muscular activity, as does the athlete. 



CHAPTER II 

CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD ELEMENTS 

BY foodstuffs are meant the chemical elements 
appropriated by the animal for the use of the 
body, as previously described. 

By foods are meant those articles of diet found in 
the market which contain the chemical elements used 
by the body in various combinations. Bread, for 
example, contains all of the foodstuffs and has been 
called the staff of life, because it sustains life. This 
refers to bread made from the whole of the grain. 
White bread, as commonly eaten, is not the ''staff 
of life." 

Foods may contain elements, not foodstuffs, and 
not used by the body, but cast out as waste. Cer- 
tain foods, such as sugar, corn-starch, olive oil, 
and egg albumin, contain only one foodstuff, as 
will be noted in the following classification, in which 
the foodstuffs are grouped according to the body 
uses. 

The classification of foods is based on the principal 
organic foodstuffs they contain. The preponderance 
of the elements in any one food determines its chief 
use in the body. 

It will be remembered that the chief uses of foods 
are to produce heat and energy, to build the tissue of 

8 



Classification of Food Elements 9 

the growing child, and to repair the tissues in the 
child and the adult. 

Nearly all foods are made up of a combination of 
substances. 

The following tabulations give the classification 
of foods based on their predominating elements. 

Nitrogenous foods : 

Lean meat 

Eggs 

Gluten 



Carbonaceous foods : 



Sugars 

Starches 

Root and tuberous vegetables 

Green vegetables 

Fruits 

Fats 



Carbo-nitrogenous foods 



Cereals 
Legumes 

Nuts 
Milk 



Vegetables are mixtures of sugars and starches; 

Fruits are mixtures of sugars, vegetable acids, and 
salts; 

Milk, legumes, cereals, and nuts contain a more 
equal division of sugars, fats, and proteins, and are 
therefore represented as carbo-nitrogenous; 

Lean meats, with the exception of shell-fish, contain 
no starch, but all meats contain protein, fat, and 
water. 



10 



What to Eat and When 



Foodstuffs - 



r t^a^^^ i Water ( Corn-Starch 

p Inorganic j Salts 



Organic 



Starches ■< Sago 

f Tapioca 



Carbonaceous 
(producing 
heat & energy) 



Nitrogenous 
(for growth 
and repair) 



Sugars 



Fats 



(Glucose 
Cane Sugar 
Syrups 
Honey 



( Lard 
•J Olive Oil 
( Butter 



(Egg Albumin 
Proteins •< Gluten 



f Lean Meat 



In the above tabulation, examples are given of food- 
stuffs which are almost pure representatives of their 
classes. 

Corn-starch, sago, and tapioca are practically pure 
starch, containing very little of any other element; 

Glucose, cane sugar, syrups, and honey are almost 
pure sugar; 

Butter, lard, and olive oil are nearly all pure fat ; 

Egg albumin, gluten of flour, and lean meat are 
almost pure protein. 

As previously stated, however, no food contains 
but one element of foodstuffs. 

NITROGENOUS FOODSTUFFS OR PROTEINS 



Protein is a complex combination consisting of 
seventeen elements. The digestive organs split up 
protein into these seventeen substances, and they 
enter the blood thus split. When they reach the 
tissues, each tissue selects the elements it needs and 



Classification of Food Elements n 

recombines them according to its own peculiar func- 
tional uses. 

Meat and eggs contain the complete protein. 

Protein exists in all vegetables, but few vegetables 
contain protein which is made up of the whole seven- 
teen substances, hence more vegetable food has to be 
eaten to secure the protein in the quantity and com- 
bination necessary to maintain life. 

Of these seventeen elements the predominating 
ones are nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphates. The 
predominance of nitrogen has given the proteins the 
name nitrogenous. 

Proteins are the tissue builders. 

In this connection it may be well to state that blood 
is a tissue; thus meat and eggs build the blood, as well 
as muscle and sinew. 

All nitrogenous foods contain considerable carbon 
— mostly in the form of fat in the meat elements — 
but the carbonaceous foods contain so little protein 
that the protein elements do not appreciably enter 
into the nutrition. 

Carbon and nitrogen in the carbo-nitrogenous 
foods are about equal in proportion. 

The nitrogenous or protein elements in the body 
constitute about one-fifth of its weight. They form 
the basis of blood, lymph, muscle, sinew, bone, skin, 
cartilage, and other tissues. 

Worn-out body tissue is constantly being torn down 
and eliminated and the protein in the foods must 
daily furnish material for repair, as well as for building 
new tissue. 

A young animal's first need is for growth, as it has 
not learned to exercise sufficiently to use much latent 
energy. The first food it receives is an animal pro- 



12 What to Eat and When 

duct — milk to babes and other mammals — while the 
young chicken or bird is nourished by the yolk of the 
egg contained within it. Sufficient yolk substance 
remains within the chick when it is hatched to sus- 
tain its life for the first day or two. 

Nitrogenous foods are more concentrated and con- 
tain less waste ; thus a smaller bulk is required than of 
vegetables and fruits. According to recent experi- 
ments, the average adult requires from two to four 
ounces of nitrogenous foods a day, to repair the waste. 
Happily, when more is consumed, the system has the 
power up to a certain limit (depending on the physical 
condition and the daily activity), to eliminate an 
excess. 

It is needless to say that if the daily waste is not 
replaced, digestion and nutrition suffer. The system 
must have the two to four ounces necessary to supply 
the nitrogen daily excreted, or the tissues themselves 
wll be consumed. 

The proteins, of which meat is the principal member, 
are classified as: 

Albuminoids: albumin (white of eggs), casein (curd 
of milk), myosin (the basis of lean meat and gluten 
of wheat) ; 

Gelatinoids : (connective tissue of meat) ; 

Extractives : (appetizing and flavoring elements) . 

If protein material is taken into the body in excess 
of its needs the excess is used as fuel. While vastly 
more expensive, an excess of protein is worth no more 
as fuel than starch is ; I gram of protein produces 4.1 
calories of heat, no more than 1 gram of starch. 

The proteins produce heat and energy when the 
supply of sugars, starches, and fats is exhausted, but 
proteins alone form muscle and the larger part of 



Classification of Food Elements 13 

blood and sinew. They are, in this sense, the most 
important of foods ; they are also the most costly. 

An excess of protein, usually eaten in the daily 
intake of food, then, is of no practical use and can 
be eliminated with great benefit to the pocketbook. 
Meat once a day is sufficient. The excessive con- 
sumption of meat can be lessened with no lack of 
nutrition to the body. The trouble is that meat is 
the first thing thought of for a meal; it is easily pre- 
pared and housewives are not willing to use the thought 
and effort necessary to secure a balanced meal without 
it. 

CARBONACEOUS FOODSTUFFS 

The carbonaceous foods are those used by the body 
for heat and energy and are so named because they 
contain a large proportion of carbon — the heat- 
producing element. 

It is the carbon in wood, which, uniting with oxygen, 
produces heat and light. 

The carbonaceous foods are all composed of carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen, the difference between them 
being in the different proportions in which these 
elements are combined. 

They are divided into two classes, Carbohydrates 
and Fats. 

The carbohydrates embrace the sugars 
and starches and include such substance as hydrates 
the starches of vegetables and grains (nota- 
bly corn, rice, wheat, and the root vegetables), and 
the sugar of milk, of fruits, vegetables, and the sap 
of trees. Their chief office is to create energy. 



14 What to Eat and When 

The starches are converted into sugar, so they are 
together given the one name of carbohydrate. The 
name means that carbon and hydrogen are contained 
in them in such a proportion that when oxygen unites 
with the hydrogen, water is produced and the carbon 
is liberated. In this chemical process heat is pro- 
duced. One gram of carbohydrate produces 4.1 
calories of heat. 

They are almost entirely absent from meat and 
eggs, the animal having converted them into fats. 

When the digestive organs are in a normal condi- 
tion carbohydrates are easily digested. 1 They do 
not play a large part in the growth of the body tissues, 
but they are utilized by the body to spare the consump- 
tion of the fat which is stored in the tissues as a re- 
serve. This explains their action in preserving but 
not producing fat. When there is an excess of fat 
and the desire is to reduce, the carbohydrates should 
be limited that the body may call on the reserve fat 
for heat and energy. 

Few realize that after the starches and fats have 
been consumed in heat and energy the tissues are 
consumed. 

The assimilation of the carbohydrates is almost 
complete, so that the energy derived from them may 
be closely calculated. 

SUGAR 

There are many varieties of sugar. Those com- 
monly used as foods are, cane sugar (sucrose), fruit 

1 For the process of digestion and the action of the digestive 
juices on the various food elements, see Let's Be Healthy, by 
Susanna Cocroft. 



Classification of Food Elements 15 

sugar (levulose), sugar of milk (lactose), sugar of malt 
(maltose), sugar of grapes or corn (glucose), maple 
sugar, honey, and saccharin — a coal-tar product. They 
are derived from plants, from trees, and from tubers 
or other vegetables. 

Cane sugar (sucrose) is derived from the juice of 
the sugar cane and from beets. One-third of the 
world's supply of sugar is derived from the sugar cane 
and two-thirds from beets. From two to ten per 
cent, of sucrose may be obtained from the maple tree. 
It is also found in the sugar pea. 

All sugars are carbohydrates — carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen — the oxygen and hydrogen being in the 
proportions which form water (two atoms of hydrogen 
and one of oxygen). 

Brown sugar is granulated sugar in an early stage 
of refinement. 

Maple sugar is obtained by boiling down the sap 
of the maple tree. It is often adulterated with other 
sugars or with glucose from corn, because they are 
cheaper. This adulteration does not make it un- 
wholesome, but causes it to lose its distinct maple 
taste. 

The nutritive value of sugar is said to be about 
ninety-five per cent. 

Glucose was formerly derived almost entirely from 
grapes. Later the process was discovered by which 
the starch in corn was converted into glucose. It is 
produced so much more cheaply from corn that this 
is now the chief source of supply. 

Glucose is also found in most of the fruits, in com- 
bination with other sugars. It needs little change to 
be absorbed by the system and quickly overloads the 
digestive apparatus if much of it is eaten. 



16 What to Eat and When 

It is pure, wholesome, and cheap, and for this reason 
it is often combined with other sugars. It is not so 
sweet as cane sugar, though just as nutritious. Many 
of the syrups on the market are made from it. 

Candy is often made from glucose instead of from 
molasses or cane sugar. 

Much candy, unless one is actively exercising, tends 
to produce indigestion. 

While glucose is wholesome, it ferments readily. 

Before sugar can be used by the system, it is changed 
into the easily absorbed form of the sugar in grapes, 
by a ferment in the small intestine. Hence digested 
sugar in the body is called grape sugar. 

Milk sugar needs less chemical change than other 
sugars and is taken almost at once into the circulation. 
It is contained in the natural food for the infant. 

The digested sugar (grape sugar) is further changed 
in the body into glycogen. When an excess of sugar 
or starch is consumed, it is stored within the body as 
glycogen, until required. 

Sugar is perhaps a better food than starch, because 
less force is required for its digestion and it is easily 
assimilated, being more readily converted into dex- 
trose than are starches. 1 Moreover it furnishes the 
heat and energy needed by those having small power 
to digest starch. 

Sugar is soon oxidized, and, for this reason may 
be eaten by those who need to use an extra amount 
of muscular strength, or to get strength quickly. It 
yields heat and energy within thirty minutes after 

1 Publisher's Note: The conversion in the body of starch and 
sugar into grape sugar, then into dextrose, then into glycogen, 
the glycogen being again broken up into grape sugar, is fully 
explained in Susanna Cocroft's book Let's Be Healthy. 



Classification of Food Elements 17 

eating, and in times of great exertion or exhausting 
labor, the rapidity with which it is assimilated gives 
it advantage over starch. Because it is so quickly- 
converted into energy it is valuable for children at 
active play. 

Experiments with soldiers on forced marches, and 
in Arctic explorations, have shown the value of sugar 
as a food, in enabling the men to withstand hunger, 
thirst, and fatigue. Taken in excess, however, parti- 
cularly by those of sedentary habits, it clogs the 
system as does any other excess of material, creating 
difficulties for the liver and kidneys. 

During muscular activity, four times as much sugar 
is consumed in the body as is ordinarily used in the 
body processes. 

Used in limited quantities, therefore, according to 
the muscular or brain power exercised, sugar is one 
of the best foods for the production of energy. 

When much sugar is eaten the starches and fats 
in the food should be lessened to avoid overloading 
the system. 

When eaten in excess, sugar may temporarily ap- 
pear in the urine unaltered. 

It might be inferred that, as all starch must be 
converted to sugar before it can be used by the body, 
starches might be discarded and replaced by sugars. 
A small quantity of sugar, however, soon surfeits 
the appetite, and if the foods were confined to those 
having a surplus of sugars, sufficient food would not 
be eaten to supply other needs of the body. This 
lack of appetite occasioned by an excess of sugar is 
due, partly, to the fact that the gastric juice is not 
secreted so freely when there is much sugar in the 
stomach. 



18 What to Eat and When 

Because of the slower secretion of gastric juice and 
the surfeit of the appetite occasioned by them, sweet- 
ened foods should not be used at the beginning of a 
meal, and, while a moderate amount of sugar is de- 
sirable, a surfeit will cause indigestion. This is parti- 
cularly liable when one eats sufficient starch and 
sugar at a meal and then eats candy between meals. 

Sugar is so readily oxidized and supplies heat and 
energy so promptly, that the fats stored in the tissues 
are not called on until the latent energy in the sugar 
is used. The power of sugar to fatten thus lies in 
sparing the use of body fat; when starch and fat are 
used in addition to sugar an excess of fat quickly 
results. Therefore, those who wish to reduce in 
flesh should eat sparingly of sugar that the starches 
and fats may be used to furnish energy, but sugar 
should be as freely used as the system can handle it, 
by those who wish to build up in flesh. 

Broadly speaking, about one-fourth of a pound of 
sugar, daily, in connection with other foods, is well 
utilized by the system, the quantity depending on 
whether one leads an active or a sedentary life. 

The natural flavor of fruits and grains is very largely 
destroyed by sugar, which is used too freely on many 
articles of diet. Sugar should never be added to 
fruits while cooking, if intended for immediate use, 
as the acids of the fruits neutralize a portion of the 
sugar. More sugar is thus used than is needed after 
the cooking process is completed. 

The sweet taste in all fruits and vegetables is due 
to the presence of sugar. Sweet potatoes, beets, 
carrots, parsnips, turnips, grapes, figs, and dates are 
especially rich in sugar, and when these are furnished 
with a meal, in any appreciable quantity, the starches 



Classification of Food Elements 19 

should be restricted — notably bread, Irish potatoes, 
and rice. 

Those who do hard work in the open air, because 
of the increased oxidation, can consume larger quan- 
tities of sugar in pie or other pastry, which ordinarily 
would be difficult to digest. One who lives an indoor 
life should refrain from an undue indulgence in such 
foods. 

For one who is undernourished, sugar is a desirable 
food, if the starch be diminished in proportion as the 
amount of sugar is increased; but the tendency in 
sweetening foods is to take more starch also than the 
system requires, since it is the carbohydrate foods 
which are ordinarily sweetened — not the proteins. 

On account of their latent heat and energy, sugars 
are more desirable in cold weather than in warm. 
For this reason Nature supplies them more abun- 
dantly in the root vegetables, eaten more freely in cold 
weather. More puddings and heavier desserts may 
be eaten in cold weather. 

The desire of the child for sweets is a natural one, 
because the child uses much energy, and sugar sup- 
plies this energy with less tax of the digestive system. 
When the child begins to eat more solid foods, if sugar 
is used in abundance for sweetening, he is no longer 
attracted by the mild sweetness of fresh milk, and it is 
well not to sweeten cereals or other foods, also to 
limit other sweets, when the child turns against milk, 
in order to restore the taste for this valuable food. 
Many authorities state that a child, up to its third 
year, should not be allowed to taste artificial sweets, 
in order that the appetite may not be perverted from 
the natural sweets of milk. 

Sugar is better supplied the child in a lump or in 



20 What to Eat and When 

home-made molasses candy, rather than in the sweet- 
ening of porridge, oatmeal, or bread and milk, etc. 

Molasses is readily absorbed and is mildly laxative, 
and when young children are not allowed to eat too 
much, it assists in keeping the bowels open. 

Sweet fruits, fully ripened, contain much sugar 
and should be freely given to the child. 

Starch is one of the most important 

carbohydrates. It is formed from the 

carbon dioxid and water in the air and in the soil by 

the chemical action of the sun's rays on the cells of 

living plants. 

As stated, corn-starch, sago, tapioca, and arrowroot 
are practically pure starch. Rice is almost pure 
starch. 

Corn-starch is obtained from young maturing corn; 
tapioca comes from a tropical plant, cassava; sago 
from the pith of the sago palm; arrowroot from a 
plant of the same name, a native of the West Indies. 

Starch lacks flavor and for this reason all starchy 
foods are seasoned with salt. Salt increases the 
activity of the saliva and pancreatic juices. 

All starches must undergo much chemical change 
by action of the saliva and the intestinal juices, before 
they can be used by the body. 

The digestion is begun by the saliva in the mouth 
and is continued in the stomach, by the saliva, until 
the gastric secretions begin to act. 

Starch is not acted on by the gastric juice but passes 
unchanged into the intestines, where it is converted, 
by the pancreatic juice, into dextrin, maltose, and 
glucose. It is thus absorbed into the blood. 

After the digested starch passes into the blood it is 



Classification of Food Elements 21 

taken to the liver and is there changed into glycogen 
and is stored in reserve. When the system needs to 
produce energy it is first furnished by the glycogen. 
When this is exhausted the fats and proteins are used. 

The starches and sugars then are really the energy 
"reserves" of the body, any excess over the daily 
needs being stored until required. 

Starchy foods should not be given to any one in 
whom, from disease or derangement, the starch-con- 
verting ferments, ptyalin in the saliva and pancreatin 
in the pancreatic juice, are lacking. 

Because the child has not developed the ferment in 
sufficient quantities necessary for starch digestion, 
starchy food must not be given to a child under twelve 
to eighteen months; at least not until he has teeth 
and chews his food. Then he should be given starchy 
food in the form of a crust or hard cracker which he 
chews thoroughly and mixes with saliva. 

Potatoes or bananas which the child does not masti- 
cate, should not be given him under the age of two 
years. 

Fat is the most concentrated form of fuel p 

and is readily oxidized. It has about 
twice the fuel value of carbohydrates. It is almost 
pure carbon, hence less chemical work is required to 
convert it into fuel, but more oxygen is needed. 

The average fat person does not breathe deeply 
and does not take in sufficient oxygen to cause a com- 
bustion of the fat and produce energy. He is thus 
inclined to be lethargic. 

A pound of fat has about three times as much fuel 
value as a pound of wheat flour, which consists largely 
of starch. 

Common examples of fat are butter, cream, the 



22 What to Eat and When 

fat of meat and of nuts, and the oil of grains and seeds 
— notably the cocoanut, olive, and oatmeal. 

Fat forms about twenty per cent, of the weight of 
the normal body. 

The body cannot remain in health for long unless a 
proper amount of fatty food is eaten. Muscular and 
nerve action, and the formation of the digestive secre- 
tions are all dependent on the energy derived from 
the combustion of fat. Its use in this way spares the 
tissues from destruction in the chemical processes 
necessary to life. 

Both carbohydrates and fats are composed of car- 
bon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the difference being that 
there is less oxygen in fat. One pound of starch re- 
quires one and one fifth pounds of oxygen for perfect 
combustion, while one pound of suet requires three 
pounds of oxygen. One ounce of fat yields two 
and one-half times as much energy "as an ounce of 
sugar or starch. 

Fats are not digested in the stomach. The con- 
nective tissue about the fat is dissolved here, and the 
fat is passed on into the small intestine, where it is 
acted on by the bile and the intestinal juices. These 
first change the fat into an emulsion and then into 
the form of soap and glycerin. In this saponified 
form, it is in condition to be absorbed and carried to 
the tissues, where it is assimilated and used in energy. 
The commercial production of soap from oil is similar 
to the chemical change in the body of fat into soap. 

The supply of fat stored in the body depends on the 
quantity consumed with the food, on the quantity 
used up in heat and energy in muscular or mental 
exercise. The quantity assimilated depends some- 
what on the condition of the nerves. If the nerves 



Classification of Food Elements 23 

are weak, they do not strongly direct digestion and 
assimilation and less fat is used in the digestive and 
assimilative processes; thus, in case of weak nerves 
more fat is often stored in the tissues. An excess of 
fat often indicates sluggish nerve activity. 

Manual laborers require more fat for energy than 
do people whose habits are sedentary. School- 
children, or children who play hard, should have 
sufficient fat and sugar. 

Butter and Cream. The fat present in milk, depends 
of course, on the quality of the milk. There is as 
much butter-fat in a glass of fresh Jersey milk as in 
a glass of cream from the milk of some cows. The 
cream from some Jersey cows is eighty per cent, 
butter-fat. 

Skimmed milk contains very little fat. If milk is 
drunk by the adult, as a means of storing up more fat 
within the body, the cream, if assimilated, should be 
stirred into it. 

The Fat of Meat. This should be thoroughly cooked. 
All meats in the process of baking or frying should be 
covered, in order to retain the moisture. The fat in 
well-roasted beef is nutritious, but to make fat easily 
digestible it should be well masticated so as to break 
up the tissue fibers which surround it. 

While fried foods are difficult of digestion (see page 
192) because the surface albumin is coagulated and the 
hot fat forms a coating around it, making it difficult for 
the digestive juices to reach the tissue, the fat of 
bacon is more easily dissolved because of the delicacy 
of the fibers surrounding the fat cells. If thinly 
sliced and fully immersed in its own grease in the 
process of frying, bacon is an easily digested fat. 



24 What to Eat and When 

The process of smoking the bacon renders it easier of 
digestion. 

Cooked bone-marrow is an easily digested form of 
fat which is usually relished by those to whom any 
other fat is repulsive. It is useful in some forms of 
anemia, as it contains considerable iron. 

Eels, salmon, and mackerel contain much fat. 

The Eskimos extensively use both whale and seal 
oil as a food. 

The yolks of eggs are also rich in fat. 

Cod-Liver Oil, pressed from the liver of the codfish, 
is easily absorbed and assimilated by some. The 
odor is not pleasant and a little lemon juice, salt, 
baking soda, or any flavoring substance may be added 
to make it palatable. The pure oil taken in this way 
is, perhaps, preferable to the prepared emulsions. 

Olive Oil is derived from ripe olives. It is often 
used when cod-liver oil is not well borne. Many 
take olive oil for the purpose of rounding out the 
figure with fat. If the system will assimilate fat, 
taken in quantities, the fat may be stored; but, as a 
rule, one is underweight because of a failure to assim- 
ilate the regular diet and overloading the digestive 
organs with fat will not cause a better assimilation. 
If the lack of flesh is due to sluggish assimilation 
exercise should always accompany a diet for the 
building of flesh. 

Olive oil, in moderation, is a good food when much 
heat and energy are required, but if one's occupation 
is sedentary, much fat is not necessary. 

Cotton-seed Oil is often substituted or mixed with 
the cheaper grades of olive oil. It is wholesome, if 
fresh, but has not the pleasing flavor of the olive. 

Nut Oils are good, but, with the exception of peanut 



Classification of Food Elements 25 

butter, are not often used. English walnuts, hickory 
nuts, pecans, cocoanuts, and Brazil nuts contain much 
oil. Nut oils are not well borne by some, hence nuts 
must be sparingly used by them. If taken they 
should be used with salt, and be thoroughly masti- 
cated. 

Almond oil and olive oil are used in cooking, to 
some extent. 

To summarize — digested sugar is called dextrose 
or glucose ; digested starch becomes first dextrin, then 
maltose (animal sugar); digested protein is peptone; 
and digested fat is saponified fat. 

WATER 

No food element is more important for the needs 
of the body than water. It is composed of oxygen 
and hydrogen. It forms the large part of the blood 
and lymph. 

The body will subsist for weeks on the food stored 
in its tissues; it will even consume the tissues them- 
selves, but it would soon burn itself up without water, 
and the thirst after a few days without it almost drives 
one insane. 

Though it produces force only indirectly, it is en- 
titled to be classed as a food, because it composes 
about two-thirds of the weight of the body and a large 
part of all the tissues and secretions. Yeo estimates 
that the supply of water to the body should be aver- 
aged at half an ounce for each pound of body weight. 

It has been estimated that from four to five pints 
of water are excreted each day by the body and there- 
fore a similar amount should be consumed daily. 



26 What to Eat and When 

The average individual at normal exercise, requires 
about seventy one and one half ounces of water daily, 
which equals about nine glasses (one glass of water 
weighs one-half pound). Some of this may be 
obtained from the food. 

By reference to Tables I to V it will be noted that 
water forms a large percentage of all food, particu- 
larly of green vegetables and fruits. 

In order that the body may do efficient work in 
digestion and in the distribution of the nutrient ele- 
ments of the foods, and that the evaporation from the 
body may be maintained, the water in the foods, 
together with the beverages drunk, should consist of 
about seventy-five per cent, liquid to twenty-five 
per cent, nutrient elements, or about three times as 
much in weight as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates 
combined. 

Much of the water taken passes through the system 
without chemical change and is constantly being 
thrown off by the skin, lungs, kidneys, and intestines. 

Some of the water is split up into hydrogen and 
oxygen to unite with other substances in the chemical 
changes carried on during the process of digestion, and 
some water is obtained from the food by the union of 
hydrogen and oxygen liberated by the action of the 
digestive juices. 

Few people give much thought to its resupply; 
yet, ignorant of the cause, they suffer from its loss, 
in imperfect digestion and assimilation, and in kidney 
and intestinal difficulties. If it is withheld from the 
diet for a while, marked changes occur in the struc- 
ture and processes of the body. The effect is seen 
in the lessening of the secretions, the increasing dryness 
of all the tissues, including the nerves, and if the lack 



Classification of Food Elements 27 

is long continued, in progressive emaciation, weakness, 
and death. 

Water is the heat regulator of the body, and the 
more energy used, either in work or in play which 
results in more heat and evaporation, the more water 
is required. An animal, if warm, immediately seeks 
water. 

It is constantly being used in the body to form solu- 
tions in which the waste products are held so that the 
eliminative organs may dispose of them. 

It is the chief agent in increasing the peristaltic 
action of both the stomach and intestines, thus aiding 
in mixing the food with the digestive juices and assist- 
ing the movement along the alimentary canal. 

It increases the flow of saliva and of the digestive 
juices and aids these juices in reaching every particle 
of food. 

It dissolves the foods, and helps in the distribution 
of food materials throughout the body, carrying them 
in the blood and the lymph from the digestive organs 
to the tissues, where they are assimilated. 

The blood carries the water to the various secreting 
and excreting glands and its increased pressure aids 
both the secreting and excreting activity. The digest- 
ive organs secrete their juices more freely, diges- 
tion is aided, more nutriment is rendered absorbable, 
more carbon dioxid is liberated, and more oxygen is 
taken into the blood which thereby is made richer 
and more life-giving. 

One engrossed in business or household cares may 
forget to take water between meals. In such a case, 
the blood, in order to preserve its volume, must 
draw the water from the tissues, which, in conse- 
quence, become less moist. The mouth becomes dry, 



28 What to Eat and When 

saliva is scanty, appetite fails, the digestion is not 
so active, the digestive and other secretions are 
lessened in quantity, the food in process of digestion 
becomes more solid, its absorption in the intestine 
is more difficult, it moves slowly along the intestinal 
canal, and constipation results. The body is not so 
well nourished and falls a more ready prey to disease. 

The supply of fluid furnished to the kidneys is not 
sufficient, the urine becomes more concentrated and 
irritation may result. The foundation is thus laid for 
derangements of the kidney function. 

To maintain the equilibrium of the body forces, water 
drinking should be established as a permanent habit 
and be firmly adhered to as a part of the daily program. 

Many claim that one's thirst, as in the desire for 
food, is the only safe guide to the amount and time 
of drinking, but these desires are largely matters of 
habit, and tastes are often perverted. Unless the con- 
dition is abnormal or the mind becomes so intensely 
active that one fails to listen to the call of Nature, 
the system calls for what it has been in the habit of re- 
ceiving and at the stated times it has been in the habit 
of receiving it. It does not always call for what is 
good for it. 

Plants thrive after a shower because the falling 
water brings down the impurities in the air which 
constitute plant food. Rain-water for household use, 
therefore, should never be collected during the early 
part of a shower or rain storm. 

Spring water, from its filtration through earth rich 
in mineral deposits, usually contains a certain per- 
centage of those minerals, as salt, sulphur, or iron, 
dissolved through the action of the carbon dioxid 
contained in the water. Some of these springs have 



Classification of Food Elements 29 

become famous health resorts. The contained carbon 
dioxid gives spring water its pleasant, sparkling taste. 
Spring water is remarkably free from organic life. 

Water as used in cities usually needs careful filtra- 
tion and purification to rid it of its contained sand 
and other impurities. The housewife whose water 
supply is derived from rivers does this on a small scale 
when she strains out the mud and sand from the water 
which she is often compelled to use when the river is 
in flood and full of impurities. 

Drinking water should be perfectly clear and with- 
out odor. Even a small amount of decomposing vege- 
table or animal matter can be detected by its odor, if 
the water is confined for a short time in a bottle or 
closed jar. 

The health of the body depends to a large degree 
on the purity of the water. Contaminated water is 
a menace to health. 

Water which appears perfectly clear may be badly 
contaminated with typhoid or other germs. For this 
reason no water should be used until it has been boiled 
if one is not sure of its purity. Water from wells 
near barns and cesspools is often impure. 

"Hard" water, as derived from wells, is usually 
rich in calcium and magnesium. When water con- 
tains a large percentage of these substances, it usually 
causes constipation and indigestion and may aid in 
the formation of gall-stones or gravel. 

The kidneys are especially the great eliminators of 
water and aid in maintaining the equilibrium of the 
blood. Except in conditions in which they need rest, 
water should be freely drunk in order to stimulate 
them to activity and to assist them in throwing off 
the body waste held in solution. 



30 What to -Eat and When 

One cannot form a better habit than that of drink- 
ing two or three glasses of water on first arising and 
then exercising the stomach and intestines by a series 
of movements which alternately contract and relax 
the walls of those organs, causing their thorough 
cleansing. 

This internal bath is as necessary as the cleansing 
of the skin. Often, in gastritis or a catarrhal condi- 
tion of the stomach, a large amount of mucus will 
collect in the stomach over night, and the cleansing 
of the mucous lining of the digestive tract is then 
most important. 

If in good health, two or three glasses of cool water, 
vigorous exercises for the vital organs, and deep 
breathing of pure air, followed by a cold bath, will do 
more to keep the health, vigor, clear skin, and spark- 
ling eye than fortunes spent on seeking new climates, 
mineral waters, or tonics. 

When cool water in the morning seems to chill one, 
a glass of hot water may be followed by a glass of cool. 

The free drinking of water aids the activity of the 
skin, keeping the tissues moist and the glands active. 

Effervescing waters are usually drunk for their 
cooling and refreshing effect. They should not be 
drunk to excess as they are usually combined with 
syrups or sugar and will thus occasion derangement 
of digestion, flatulence, and in some cases palpitation 
from the excess of gas which presses on the diaphragm 
and impedes the action of the heart. 

Mineral waters are drunk for the action of the 
salts which they contain and are used for their laxative 
or their medicinal effect. Kissengen, Hunyadi Janos, 
Epsom, Carlsbad, and our own Saratoga are examples 
of laxative waters. These all contain sodium and 



Classification of Food Elements 31 

magnesium sulphates and are known as "bitter" 
waters. 

Table waters, as Apollinaris, Vichy, or others con- 
taining carbon dioxid are refreshing and wholesome 
and may be used in nausea and vomiting for their 
quieting effect. Those who are unable to take milk 
will often find its digestion will be aided if the milk 
be mixed with Vichy or seltzer water. 

When water is used as a hot drink it should be 
freshly drawn, brought to a boil, and used at once. 
This sterilizes it and develops a better flavor. 

Cold water should be thoroughly cooled, but not 
iced. Water is best cooled by placing the receptacle 
on ice rather than by putting ice in the water. Impure 
or contaminated ice will contaminate water. 

The theory has long been held that water drinking 
at meals is injurious, the objection being that the food 
is not so thoroughly masticated if washed down with 
water, and that it dilutes the digestive juices. But 
this theory is now rejected by the best authorities. 

WJien water drinking at meals is allowed to interfere 
with mastication and is used to wash down the food, the 
objection is well taken, but one need rarely drink while 
food is in the mouth; the water should be taken at 
rest periods between mouthfuls. 

Thorough mastication and a consequent free mixing 
of the food with saliva is one of the most essential steps in 
digestion, and the flow of gastric juice, as the flow of 
saliva, is stimulated by the water. 

It is singular that the use of water at meals has 
long been considered unwise when the free use of milk, 
which is about seven-eighths water, has been recom- 
mended. 

The copious drinking of cool water from a half hour 



32 What to Eat and When 

to an hour before a meal will cleanse the stomach and 
incite the flow of saliva and gastric juice, thus aiding 
digestion. 

Moreover, the digestive cells secrete their juices more 
freely and the sucking villi absorb more readily when 
the stomach and intestines are moderately full, either 
of food or water, and to fill the stomach with food 
requires too much digestive and eliminative activity. 

Water taken before meals passes through the stom- 
ach before the food, washes away any mucus that may 
have collected over the mouths of the gastric glands, 
stimulates them to activity, and prepares the stomach 
to receive the food. 

Results obtained, in building up about twenty 
thousand thin women, show that the free drinking of 
liquid at meals has a tendency to increase flesh. Prob- 
ably one reason for this is the cleanliness and greater 
freedom it gives to the absorbing and secreting cells 
of the mucous lining of the digestive tract, the stronger 
peristalsis it occasions, and the consequent better 
digestion. 

When one wishes to reduce in flesh, water drinking 
at meals is restricted. 

If the contents of the stomach have become too 
concentrated or solid, the water will render it more 
liquid, hence will aid the admixture with the gastric 
juices and will enable it more readily to pass the pyloric 
orifice. 

Drinking at meals, therefore, has many more argu- 
ments in its favor than against it. 

All who have a tendency to the deposit of uric acid 
in the tissues, as in gout, should drink freely of water 
to lessen the deposit of salts from the blood which 
must maintain its proportion of fluid. 



Classification of Food Elements 33 

More water should be drunk if the meal consists 
largely of protein. The nitrogen it contains is elim- 
inated in a short time by the kidneys, the amount 
of urine is increased, and more water must be drunk 
to make up the loss. 

In sickness, as in fever, the increased respiration 
causes a corresponding loss of water from the skin 
and the lungs. If the bowels are active as in diarrhea, 
much water is lost in this way. The increase in the 
heat of the body also tends to dry all the secretions, 
hence water must be taken to keep them in proper 
fluidity. 

The patient is often too ill to ask for water or will 
forget to ask for it. Constipation may result from 
this cause. It must be a part of the nurse's duty to 
see that a sufficient amount is taken. An excess of 
cold water, if hastily taken, may cause cramps. If 
slowly sipped it will do no harm. 

Water may be given in fever in the form of lemon- 
ade; a small pinch of soda will make it effervescent 
and more refreshing. 

There is no tonic like water, exercise, and fresh air. 
The safe method is not to allow the habit of drinking 
water with regularity to be broken, unless for some 
necessary purpose, and then the habit should be 
reinstated as soon as possible. 

Soft water, that is, water containing no lime or 
other mineral, is best. Hard water which causes 
any degree of curdling of soap, or a lime crust in the 
bottom of a teakettle, renders digestion difficult. " 

Bacteria are killed and much of the mineral mat- 
ter is deposited by boiling the water. Boiled water 
tastes flat or insipid. It may regain its original, 
fresh taste by filling a^ jar half full of water, and 



34 What to Eat and When 

shaking the jar so that the air passes through the 
water. 

SALTS 



■' The salts of sodium, potassium, magnesium, cal- 
cium and some other substances, are necessary for 
proper bodily functioning. Taken with the food, 
they pass into the tissues without change and can be 
recovered, unchanged, from the tissues and the urine. 

The uses of some of these substances are not thor- 
oughly understood, but if deprived of them, the nutri- 
tion of the body suffers. 

Lime (calcium) is necessary for the bones and teeth 
and to preserve the coagulability of the blood. 

Sodium chlorid (common salt) aids the formation of 
hydrochloric acid and the activity of the pancreatic 
juice. 

iThe salts of iron are necessary for the blood. 
- ' Other salts are also needed to carry on the chemical 
reactions in the digestive system. 
.' Cereals, all vegetables, fruits, and nuts furnish both 
calcium salts and sodium, potassium, and magnesium, 
which are the salts in the blood and lymph. Minerals 
are also abundant in dried legumes (beans and peas). 

Fruits and nuts contain the least amount of these 
salts, and meats, vegetables, and cereals follow in the 
order named, cereals, that is the whole of the grain — 
not the white flour — containing the most. Any diet, 
therefore, which recommends the use of fruits and nuts 
to the exclusion of other foods, depletes the system of 
some of the body-building elements. The system 
'may seem to thrive for a time on such food because, 
perhaps, of the rest given to overworked organs, but 



Classification of Food Elements 35 

eventually the body lack will manifest, itself ; anemia 
may appear or malnutrition become evident. 

Milk furnishes salts in proper proportion for build- 
ing the bones and teeth of the baby; because of the 
lime which it contains it is a good food for the growing 
child. After the child is one year old, eggs may be 
added to the diet. During the first year the albumin 
and fats in the egg are not well digested. It is espe- 
cially essential that children be furnished milk and 
eggs that they may be assured of the proper proportion 
and quantity of calcium salts for growth. 

Sodium chlorid (common salt) has been for ages 
recognized as an important element in food, so im- 
portant that in Eastern countries it is the symbol of 
hospitality and friendship. 

When taken in moderate quantities, salt increases 
the activity of the gastric secretion' and aids the 
appetite. When taken in excess, as many who have 
formed the salt-eating habit do, it is an irritant to 
the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines 
and may interfere with nutrition, causing dyspep- 
sia, gastroenteritis or diarrhea from the continued 
irritation. 

The habit indulged by some of nibbling at salted 
nuts of various kinds, at and between meals, may for 
a short time satisfy the needs of the body for more 
salt than is usually taken with the food, but such a 
habit persisted in will cause acidity of the stomach 
from overstimulation of the hydrochloric acid produc- 
ing glands; it will also decrease the fluidity of the 
blood by causing the water to be drawn from the blood 
for the use of the tissues. Irritative action is also 
exerted on the kidney, as any excess of salt is excreted 
by this organ. For this reason salt is often prohibited 



36 .What to Eat and When 

for those suffering from any inflammation of the 
kidney, in Bright's disease, etc. 

When chemical tests show an excess of hydrochloric 
acid, salt should be omitted from the diet. 

A diet consisting largely of vegetables needs the 
addition of sodium chlorid to supply sufficient salt 
for body uses; likewise more salt than is contained in 
grass and fodder is needed for animals, particularly 
for those producing milk. The scientific farmer 
salts his cattle regularly, while wild animals travel 
miles and form beaten paths to springs containing 
salt. 

In rectal feeding, it is known that food absorbs more 
readily through the large intestine if salted. It is 
probable that salt, in normal proportions, also aids 
absorption in the stomach and small intestine. 

Potassium is next in importance to sodium as it 
constitutes the chief salt in the muscles. It also aids 
the action of the digestive secretions and the main- 
tenance of the reaction of the urine. Potatoes and 
apples are valuable foods on account of the potassium 
they contain. 

Calcium, if in excess, may cause the formation of 
calculi, renal or biliary. It is also found in the tartar 
which accumulates on the teeth, in the hardening 
walls of the arteries in arteriosclerosis, etc. All of 
the cabbage family are rich in calcium. Many 
mineral waters and the water from many wells contain 
it in excess. 

Those addicted to gall-stones, gravel, etc., should 
particularly avoid ''hard" water. 

Phosphorus and sulphur are obtained by the body 
from eggs and milk and from such vegetables as corn, 
cauliflower, asparagus, and turnips. 



Classification of Food Elements 37 

Iron is necessary in forming the pigment of the red 
blood corpuscles. 

If, through some disturbance in digestion, absorp- 
tion or assimilation, the iron taken in the food is not 
utilized, or is insufficient in amount, the blood-making 
organs do not receive the necessary amount of this 
substance and the red corpuscles are not formed in 
sufficient numbers. The blood becomes poor in 
hemoglobin, and the individual becomes pale and 
loses vitality. This condition is known as anemia. 



CHAPTER III 



CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS 



IN the previous chapters, we have given the classi- 
fication of the elements in foods (foodstuffs) which 
supply the body needs. In this chapter the foods 
commonly used are classified according to the pre- 
dominance of these elements. 

CARBONACEOUS FOODS 

While all foods contain a combination of elements, 
some contain a greater proportion of carbohydrates 
and fats, and are classed as carbonaceous. 



Of the carbohydrates, next in importance to the sug- 
ars and to the starches in their purest form 
oosan (cornstarch, tapioca, sago, and arrowroot), 
come the roots and tubers, such as pota- 
toes, sweet potatoes, beets, parsnips, turnips, and 
onions. 

The following table shows the proportion of various 
foodstuffs in these vegetables. The skins of the 
vegetables are included. 

38 



Classification of Foods 

TABLE I 
Roots and Tubers 



39 



FOOD MATERIALS 


^ 


a* 


c 


to jj 


i 







£ o 


£ 


3 


^l-O 





*dft8 




03 u 


O U 


fe P. 


Uj3 a 


to 2 

<J ft 


S3 "3 


Sweet Potatoes 


694 


1-5 


o-3 


26.2 


2.6 


440 


White Potatoes 


75-o 


2.1 


0.2 


22.0 


0.7 


295 


Parsnips 


64.4 


1-3 


0.4 


I0.8 


I.I 


230 


Onions 


86.0 


1.9 


0.1 


n-3 


0.7 


225 


Beets 


87.0 


1.4 


O.I 


7.3 


0.7 


160 


Carrots 


88.2 


I.I 


0.4 


8.2 


6.0 


2IO 


Turnips 


927 


O.9 


O.I 


O.I 


0.6 


120 



Potatoes. It will be noted from the table given 
above that sweet potatoes contain a larger percentage 
of carbohydrates, hence they produce more heat and 
energy than any other vegetable; next to the sweet 
potato comes the Irish or white potato. 

While the white potato contains two per cent, of 
protein, this is almost all located in a very thin layer 
immediately beneath the skin, so that when the potato 
is peeled in the ordinary way, the protein is removed. 
This is true of many vegetables. They lose their 
distinctive flavor, as well as their value as tissue- 
building foods, when the skins are removed, especially 
before cooking. Many vegetables may be peeled 
after being cooked and their value in nutrition is thus 
increased. All tubers gain in dietetic value if they 
are cooked in their skins, the thin outer covering 
being removed after the cooking process is completed. 
The ordinary cook, however, is unwilling to take the 
trouble to prepare them in this way. 



40 What to Eat and When 

In vegetables as usually prepared for the table the 
proportion of carbohydrates is increased and the pro- 
portion of protein is diminished. The skins render 
many of the foods unsightly, hence they are discarded 
in the preparation for cooking. 

When a potato is baked the outer skin is readily 
separated from the less perceptible layer containing 
the protein. Potatoes boiled in their skins retain the 
protein. 

In the white potato, of the twenty-two per cent, 
of carbohydrates, three and two-tenths per cent, is 
sugar and eighteen and eight-tenths per cent, is 
starch. In the sweet potato ten and two-tenths per 
cent, is sugar and sixteen per cent, is starch. 

Since sugar digests more quickly than starch, the 
sweet potato digests more quickly than the white. 
Because of the large percentage of carbohydrates in 
each, it is a mistake to eat these two vegetables at 
the same meal, unless the quantity of each is lessened. 
For the same reason, bread and potatoes, or rice and 
potatoes, should not be eaten to any extent at the 
same meal, unless by one who is doing heavy manual 
labor, requiring much energy. 

Onions. Only about four per cent, of the onion 
represents nourishment; the eleven and three-tenths 
per cent, of carbohydrates is made up of two and 
eight- tenths per cent, sugar and the rest of extrac- 
tives. Of the extractives the volatile oil, which 
causes the eyes to water when onions are peeled, is 
the most important. 

The onion is not, therefore, so important for its 
actual nourishing qualities as for its relish and flavor, 
and for this it is to be commended. 

It is a diuretic, encouraging a free action of the 



Classification of Foods 41 

kidneys. Because of its diuretic value it is commonly 
called a healthful food. An onion and lettuce sand- 
wich stimulates the action of the kidneys and is a 
nerve sedative. 

The volatile oil makes the raw onion difficult for 
some to digest and, in that case, should be omitted 
from the diet. 

Beets. There is no starch in beets, their seven 
and three-tenths per cent, of carbohydrates being 
sugar. They possess, therefore, more nutritive value 
than onions, and they are easily digested. It will 
be noted that it takes many beets to make a pound 
of sugar. 

There are no more delicate or nutritious greens than 
the stem and leaf of the beet. These greens contain 
much iron and are valuable aids in building up the 
iron in the blood, thus aiding in the correction of 
anemia. 

Carrots. Carrots are valuable as food chiefly on 
account of their sugar. They are somewhat more 
difficult of digestion than beets and they contain 
more waste. They make a good side dish, boiled 
and served with butter or cream. 

Turnips. Turnips have little value as a food. 
Their nutriment is in the sugar they contain. For 
those who enjoy the flavor they are a relish, serving 
as an appetizer, and, like the onion, are to be recom- 
mended as a side dish for this purpose. 

Parsnips. Like carrots, parsnips are chiefly valu- 
able for their sugar and for the extractives which act 
as appetizers. 

Since turnips, carrots, onions, and parsnips owe a 
part of their nutritive value to the extractives which 
whet the appetite for other foods, it follows that, if 



42 What to Eat and When 

one does not enjoy their flavor or their odor, these 
vegetables lose in value to that individual as a food. 
If one does enjoy the flavor, it adds to their food value, 
therefore taste for the flavors of all foods should be 
cultivated. 

The question may be asked with reason : 

Vegetables " Wh y do we eat S reen vegetables?" 
They contain only about four per cent, 
nutriment, as will be seen in Table II, and are 
mostly made up of water and pulp. It will be 
noted that they are distinctly lacking in pro- 
tein and: in carbohydrates; hence, they have little 
food value. 

Some of them, however, contain acids which tend 
to increase the alkalinity of the blood, and salts which 
are needed by the system. 

Their merit lies in the fact that they have distinct 
flavors and thus whet the appetite. Another reason 
why green vegetables are thoroughly enjoyed is be- 
cause they come in the spring, when the appetite is 
a little surfeited with the winter foods. 

They are diuretic, helping the kidneys and the skin 
to rid the system of waste. 

Because of their bulk of waste they are useful in 
constipation as they act as a stimulus to the peristaltic 
action of the bowels; thus they are more laxative to 
the intestines than the root vegetables, partly because 
of the salts which they contain and partly because of 
the undigested vegetable fiber. This vegetable fiber, 
being coarse, assists in cleansing the mucous lining 
of the stomach and intestines. They are diuretic and, 
if for no other reason than for this cleansing of the 
kidneys, and to make the stomach and intestines more 



Classification of Foods 



43 



efficient, the use of green vegetables is to be com- 
mended, and it is well to eat freely of them. 

TABLE II 
Grbkn Vegetables 







m 

O 










3-tf 


FOOD 

MATERIALS 


In O 







O cj <U 


m t) 

4) £ 


c 

_3 


.2 c 
5 R o 




« Ih 


+J O Ih 


+» u 


ST? n 


.Srttn 


"7! <-< 


fa ftO 




£ft 


ZS& 


fa a 


U^l ft 


22 ft 


C 4) 

Oft 


Cabbage 


89.6 


1.80 


0.4 


5.8 


1.3 


I.I 


165 


Spinach 


90.6 


2.50 


0.5 


3.8 


1-7 


0.9 


120 


Vegetable Mar- 
















row 


94.8 


0.06 


0.2 


2.6 


0-5 


1-3 


I20 


Tomatoes 


91.9 


1.30 


0.2 


5-o 


0.7 


I.I 


105 


Lettuce 


94.1 


I.4O 


O.4 


2.6 


I.O 


0.5 


I05 


Celery- 


934 


1.40 


O.I 


3-8 


O.9 


0.9 


85 


Rhubarb 


94.6 


0.70 


O.7 


2.3 


0.6 


I.I 


105 


Water Cress 


93-1 


0.70 


o-5 


8.7 


1-3 


O.I 


110 


Cucumbers 


95-9 


0.8) 


0.1 


2.1 


0.4 


o-5 


10 


Asparagus 


91.7 


2.20 


0.2 


2.9 


0.9 


2.1 


no 


BrusselsSprouts 


93-7 


1.50 


0.1 


34 


1-3 


0.4 


95 


Beans (string) 


8.92 


2.3 


0.3 


74 


0.8 


7.0 


195 


Beans (dried) 


12.6 


22.5 


1.8 


59-6 


3-5 


0.0 


1605 


Peas (green, 
















shelled) 


74.6 


7.0 


0.5 


16.9 


1.0 


0.0 


465 



In larger cities, fresh vegetables are in the markets 
the year around, but if they are raised in greenhouses, 
or in any way forced, they lack the flavor which comes 
with natural maturity and they also lack the full 
amount of iron given by the rays of the sun. If raised 
in the south and shipped from a distance, they are not 
fresh and they do not have as good an effect on 
the system as when fresh and fully matured by the 
sun. 

Greens, as spinach, chard, dandelions, and beet tops, 



44 What to Eat and When 

as previously stated, contain iron and build red blood 
corpuscles. 

Cabbage, of which there are many varieties, contains 
much sulphur. If fermentation exists in the intestines 
the sulphur unites with hydrogen causing gas of an 
unpleasant odor. 

They promote the formation of calcium oxalate in 
the urine and should be avoided as a food by any one 
inclined to gout, rheumatism, or gall-stones. 

Cabbage is usually not well digested by invalids. 

Eaten raw, because of its bulk, it is laxative. Some 
dyspeptics, who cannot digest cooked cabbage, digest 
raw cabbage readily. 

Celery is wholesome when cooked, because of the 
milk and butter in which it is prepared. Eaten raw 
the fiber is hard for the digestive juices to dissolve 
and should be thoroughly masticated. It has little 
nutritive value save for its appetizing flavor. 
£ Because of the salts, largely sulphates and phos- 
phates, which it contains, celery has been called a 
nerve food, but the proportion of these is so small that 
their food value is negligible. 

Tomatoes are easily digested and are refreshing, 
They are not well borne by some and on account of 
the oxalic acid they contain should not be used by 
those having an excess of uric acid. 

Asparagus, because of its delicate flavor and appear- 
ance early in spring, is a vegetable universally liked. 
It is easily digested and may be eaten by invalids; 
they usually greatly relish it. Its particular food 
value lies in its sulphur and in its value as an appetizer. 

Rhubarb is one of the most wholesome of vegetables 
and is being much more widely used. Thoroughly 
cooked it is digestible and a natural laxative. 



Classification of Foods 45 

Its tart flavor and appearance in early spring render 
it a pleasant change from the ordinary diet. Eaten 
in excess, like cabbage, it produces calcium oxalate 
in the urine and should not be eaten in large amounts 
by those inclined to gout. 

All fresh vegetables should be masticated to almost 
a fluid consistency; otherwise, they are difficult of 
digestion, containing, as they do, so much fiber. 

Technically speaking, fruits include all 
plant products which bear or contain a 
seed. They are valuable for their acids and organic 
salts — citrates, malates, or tartrates of potassium, 
sodium, magnesium, and calcium. 

They are composed for the most part of starch, 
sugar, water, and various organic acids, cellulose, and 
pectin. (Pectin is the substance which jellies under 
heat.) Fruits which do not contain pectin must be 
combined with others which do, or with gelatin, if 
jelly from them is desired. 

The organic acids in fruits are readily split up in 
the body, and form alkalis. For this reason acid 
fruits are useful in certain acid conditions of the 
stomach, because they combine with the stomach 
acids, liberating substances which cause an alkaline 
reaction. 

The citrus fruits — oranges, lemons, grapefruit and 
limes — are rich in citric acid. 

Malic acid is found in gooseberries, peaches, pears, 
apples, currants, and apricots. 

Tartaric acid is prominent in grapes. 

The value of fruits as a food depends largely on the 
amount of starch and sugar they contain, though 
their agreeable odor and taste, by furnishing variety 



46 What to Eat and When 

in the diet, render them, also, of great value as 
appetizers. 

As a rule they contain too much water to be of 
great food value if eaten alone. 

The organic acids and salts contained in fruits are 
of value as they stimulate the activity of the kidneys 
and lessen the acidity of the urine. The urine may 
even be rendered alkaline by them; hence, when a 
test shows evidence of too much uric acid, acid fruits 
are used to neutralize the acids in the tissues, parti- 
cularly the acids of the citrus fruits. 

The fruit juices are readily absorbed and the potas- 
sium calcium, sodium, and magnesium they contain are 
liberated with the formation of alkaline carbonates. 

These alkalis are largely eliminated through the kid- 
neys, which accounts for the diuretic effect of fruits, 
their acids and salts stimulating the activity of the 
kidneys. 

The seeds in the small fruits are not digested, but 
they serve the purpose of increasing intestinal peri- 
stalsis and of assisting the movement of the contents 
of the intestines. The skin and the fiber of fruits also 
assist the intestines in this way, just as the fiber in 
vegetables does. 

All acid fruits — particularly lemons, limes, grape- 
fruit, and oranges — stimulate the action of the skin 
as well as the kidneys and whenever the kidneys and 
skin are not sufficiently active, these fruits should be 
eaten freely. 

In case of an excess of hydrochloric acid in the 
stomach, lemon juice or citrus fruits are valuable 
about half an hour before a meal, as when taken on an 
empty stomach they decrease the secretion of hydro- 
chloric acid. 



Classification of Foods 



47 



When the secretion of hydrochloric acid is limited, 
acids are given after a meal to supplement the 
deficiency, or stimulate the glands to activity. 

Sweet or bland fruits are those containing a lesser 
percentage of acids. Among these are pears, rasp- 
berries, grapes, bananas, blackberries, blueberries, 
melons, and some peaches, apples, and plums. 

Of this class of fruits, dates, figs, prunes, and grapes 
(raisins), furnish most nutriment, because, as will be 
noted by Table III, these fruits contain a large 
amount of carbohydrates in the form of sugar. 

The protein in these sweet fruits is largely in the 
seeds and, as the seeds are not digested, they have no 
real food value for the individual. 

Figs and prunes, peaches, apples, and berries are 
laxative — probably the laxative action of figs and 
berries is due to the seeds, and of the others to the salts 
and acids they contain, and to the cellulose or fibrous 
material which furnishes bulk. 

TABLE III 
Fruits 









4-> 



OJ 

u 










FOOD 


m 




* . 






«j .? 




MATERIALS 


u% 


cc 


W£ 


O d <D 


i 


Sa 


i 




o> « 


'Si 


(h V 


V 


•3 9 


m «> 




£ o 


£ 


<u 


.a £ u 





3 O 


•3 ° 




a u 


O u 


>Z u 


i3' c <-, 


-Z u 








£ft 


u 5 
Pn ft 


Hft 


O.G ft 


<! ft 


5 
Oft 


< ft 


Apples 


82.50 


O.4O 


0.5 


12.5 


O.4 


2.7 


1.0 


Apricots 


85.OO 


I. IO 


0.6 


12.4 


0.5 


3-1 


1.0 


Peaches 


88.80 


O.5O 


0.2 


5-8 


0.6 


34 


0.7 


Plums 


7840 


1. 00 


0.2 


14.8 


o-5 


4-3 


1.0 


Cherries 


84.OO 


0.80 


0.8 


10.0 


0.6 


3-8 


1.0 


Gooseberries 


86.00 


0.40 


0.8 


8.9 


0.5 


2.7 


i-5 



4 8 



What to Eat and When 



FOOD 








to : 




4) • 




MATERIALS 


K S 


ai 


H« 


,S3 


i 


«0+J 

C 


"8 




v a 


'v £ 


U 4> 


O cij <0 


4) 


•3 4> 


to £ 




$ « 


H 


<U U 


^2o 


O 


.5 ° 


•3 ° 




CtJ u 


U 


"5 U 


ijT3 w 


J3 u 








*& 


Ph ft 


Hft 


0^5 0, 


■< ft 


O ft 


-< & 


Currants 


85.20 


O.4O 


0.8 


7-9 


o-5 


4.6 


1.4 


Strawberries 


89.10 


I. OO 


0-5 


6-3 


0.7 


2.2 


1.0 


Whortleberries 


76.30 


0.70 


3-0 


5-8 


0.4 


12.2 


1.6 


Cranberries 


86.50 


0.50 


0.7 


3-9 


0.2 


6.2 


2.2 


Oranges 


86.70 


O.9O 


0.6 


8.7 


0.6 


1-5 


1.8 


Lemons 


89-3 


1. 00 


0.9 


8-3 


o-5 


i-5 


1.8 


Pineapples 


89-3 


0.04 


o.3 


9-7 


0.3 


1-5 


7.0 


Pears 


83.90 


0.40 


0.6 


H.5 


0.4 


3-i 


0.1 


Blackberries 


88.90 


0.90 


2.1 


2.3 


0.6 


5-2 


1.6 


Raspberries 


84.40 


1. 00 


2.1 


5-2 


0.6 


74 


1.4 


Mulberries 


84.70 


0.30 


0.7 


11.4 


0.6 


0.9 


1.8 


Grapes 


79.00 


1. 00 


1.0 


15-5 


0.5 


2.5 


0.5 


Watermelons 


92.90 


0.30 


0.1 


6-5 


0.2 


1.0 


o-5 


Bananas 


74.00 


1.50 


0.7 


22.9 


0.9 


0.2 


0.5 


Dates, dried 


2.08 


4.40 


2.1 


65.1 


1-5 


5-5 


7.0 


Figs, dried 


2.00 


5.50 


0.9 


62.8 


2.3 


7-3 


1.2 


Prunes, dried 


2.64 


2.40 


0.8 


66.2 


i-5 


7-3 


2.7 


Raisins 


10.60 


2.50 


47 


74-7 


3-i 


1-7 


2.7 



The astringent and acid taste of unripe fruits is 
due to the tannin and the acids. Oxygen is neces- 
sary to ripen fruits and the slow natural maturing 
of the fruit on the tree enables the oxygen to enter 
into combination with these substances, lessening 
their reaction and altering the starch into glucose or 
levulose. 

Fruits ripened artificially lack this cnemical action 
of sun and oxygen, hence the decreased palatability 
and digestibility of fruits so ripened. If underripe 
fruits are freely eaten they ferment in the alimentary 
tract and this fermentation causes the colic, vomiting, 
and diarrhea so often experienced. Overripe fruit, 



Classification of Foods 49 

from the decomposition products which have already 
begun to form and which are further released in 
the stomach or bowels, may produce the . same 
results. 

Care should therefore be exercised to select thor- 
oughly ripe fruits which have not begun to decay. 

In order to reach their destination in fair condition, 
outwardly, many fruits are picked before they are 
ripe. Bananas are commonly picked green, because 
they decay so quickly that if they were picked 
ripe they would spoil before reaching the northern 
markets. 

One test of a naturally ripened apple is to cut it 
with a steel knife — if the blade turns black, or if the 
cut surface of the apple turns brown in a few minutes, 
it should not be eaten, for it indicates an excess of 
tannin. It is this tannin which gives the small boy 
excruciating pains from his green apples. 

It will be recalled that the tannin from the bark of 
trees toughens the skin of animals and forms leather. 
The effect on the membrane of the stomach and 
intestines, from the tannin in food, is not so pro- 
nounced, because of the activity and resistance of 
living matter. 

The juice of lemons and oranges is most valuable 
in seasickness and scurvy, and is of benefit in nausea. 
A slice of lemon will often clear a coated tongue and 
give a refreshing sense of cleanliness to the mouth, 
especially in feverish conditions. Sour lemonade is 
one of the best drinks in summer because of its thirst- 
allaying qualities. 

Table III shows that bananas contain nearly twenty- 
three per cent, of carbohydrates, which, in an imma- 
ture state, are largely starches. The natural ripening 
4 



50 What to Eat and When 

process changes the starch to sugar, thus making them 
more easily digested. The starch globules, when 
not matured on the tree, are not easily broken and are 
thus difficult of digestion. 

Bananas should not be given to children under two 
years of age because before this age the ptyalin and 
pancreatin are not sufficiently developed to digest 
the starch. 

Many of the inhabitants of the tropics use bananas 
almost to the exclusion of other food and appear well 
nourished. They obtain them from the tree when 
the fruit has thoroughly ripened, the starch having 
been transformed by Nature into an easily digested 
product. 

The reason many find they cannot digest bananas, 
as purchased in our markets, is due to the fact that 
the fruit is immature and unripe. 

The banana meal or flour is usually thoroughly 
digestible, is nourishing, and has an agreeable taste. 
Invalids can often take banana meal in the form of 
gruel; it makes an appreciated addition to a limited 
diet. Made into a porridge and eaten with cream it is 
valuable in conditions of inflammation of the gastro- 
intestinal tract. The addition of a few drops of lemon 
juice renders it palatable to those who like an acid 
flavor. Children enjoy it as a variation from cereals. 
It is relished by typhoid fever patients as a change 
from milk. 

It must be carefully cooked and well prepared as, 
like oatmeal, it can be spoiled by insufficient or poor 
cooking. Owing to the limited demand it is not 
obtainable in all markets, as it has not yet become 
popularized. 

Grapes, because of their wholesome qualities, are 



Classification of Foods 51 

useful to the system, as they contain sodium, iron, 
magnesium, potassium, and calcium. Because of their 
appetizing flavor they are universally enjoyed, and 
because they are cheap are universally used. The 
skins and seeds are indigestible and, if swallowed, 
may cause severe irritation or obstruction of the 
intestines. Grapes are rich in sugar, and on this 
account must not be eaten by diabetics. 

Grape juice, when unfermented, is a valuable drink, 
in health, or for the convalescent. It is agreeable 
in taste and is mildly laxative. Added to other fruit 
juices, as lemon or orange, it allays thirst and fur- 
nishes a pleasant flavor, but on account of its high 
percentage of sugar does not allay thirst when used 
alone. 

Apples, so universally used, are easily digestible 
when ripe, and may be prepared in so many ways that 
they constitute a valuable addition to the diet. Their 
laxative qualities, when taken on an empty stomach, 
as before breakfast, or just before retiring, are well 
known. They are thus valuable in constipation, and 
in some forms of dyspepsia may, with benefit, be eaten 
raw. 

Apples should be thoroughly masticated. 

The apple peel contains potassium salts and should 
be eaten with the fruit. 

Most invalids digest apples better if they are cooked, 
especially baked. Stewed apples may have the beaten 
white of eggs whipped into them and invalids who 
revolt against eggs can take them thus prepared. 

Because of the sugar necessary in cooking them they 
should be avoided by diabetics, and in conditions 
in which there is irritation of the gastro-intestinal 
tract. 



52 What to Eat and When 

Quinces are indigestible when raw, but well 
baked and eaten with cream are appetizing and 
nourishing. 

Pineapples, if thoroughly ripe, contain a ferment 
which will digest protein, rapidly softening and dis- 
integrating the tissue of meat. Like the pancreatic 
ferment it acts in both alkaline and acid mediums. 
Pineapple juice, therefore, is exceedingly valuable as 
an addition to the diet. The coarse fibers also have 
a laxative action. Care must be taken, however, to 
use this fruit only when it is well ripened, as when 
green, it is indigestible. 

The juice of pineapple, because of the action of the 
ferment in dissolving tissue, is valuable in many forms 
of sore throat, particularly when accompanied by an 
ulcerous condition. The effort should be made to hold 
it in the mouth, allowing it to trickle down the throat 
by degrees. 

Dried fruits are less palatable than fresh. Many of 
them, as prunes and raisins, are nourishing, but others, 
as citron, are indigestible, and should be finely chopped 
if used as flavoring. 

Dried or evaporated fruits, through the action of 
heat, either artificial or from the rays of the sun, have 
lost the water they contained, and are preserved by 
their own sugar. 

Dried grapes, or raisins, because of their sugar, 
soon satiate the appetite if eaten raw, but if cooked 
or added to cereals, puddings, or breads, enhance 
the palatability and nourishing qualities of these 
foods. 

Dates and figs used in the same way, in cereals or 
puddings, are equally valuable. 

Dried currants are the most indigestible of the, 



Classification of Foods 53 

dried fruits, owing to their large amount of skin in 
proportion to the nutriment. 

NITROGENOUS FOODS 

As previously stated, in a mixed diet, meat and eggs 
are the chief sources of nitrogenous foods. Next to 
these come the legumes. 

Meat is composed largely of muscle fiber and 

contains connective tissue and fat. It has __ 

1 * « . Meat 

been estimated that beef contains one- 
third nutritive material, the other two-thirds being 
water and bone. Fat meat contains less nitrogenous 
material and less water than lean meat. 

Lean meat is almost entirely digested in the stomach 
by the gastric juice, which changes it into peptone. 
It is needless to say that it should be thoroughly 
masticated, that the gastric juice may promptly act 
on it. If any part passes into the intestine undigested, 
the process is continued by the trypsin of the pan- 
creatic juice. 

The peptone is absorbed and carried by the blood 
and lymph to all tissues of the body, where it is used 
for growth and repair. As stated under "Heat and 
Energy," any excess of protein above that needed 
for growth and repair is oxidized if sufficient oxygen 
is breathed, yielding energy and heat, and the waste 
is eliminated through the kidneys and the bile. 

For purposes of comparison, one pound of beef has 
been said to equal in nutritive value, two and one-half 
pints or five glasses of milk, one-half pound (two-thirds 
of an ordinary baker's loaf) of bread, and three eggs. 
However, these values vary. . ^ 



54 



What to Eat and When 

TABLE IV 
Animal Foods 



FOOD MATERIALS 


-4-> 

h 4> 






O nj V 


-1-5 

a 


I* 




<U y 


g O 


u 


.0 2 O 





•S a o 






O u 
CU ft 


fe a 


13*5 •< 
OX ft 


<ft 




Beef, Fresh 


54-o 


17.0 


19.O 




0.7 


1105 


Flank 


54-0 


17.0 


19.O 




0.7 


1105 


Porterhouse 


5 2 4 


I9.I 


17.9 




0.8 


1 100 


Sirloin steak 


54-o 


16.5 


16.I 




O.9 


975 


Round 


60.7 


I9.O 


12.8 




1.0 


890 


Rump 


45-0 


13.8 


20.2 




0.7 


1090 


Corned beef 


49.2 


14-3 


23.8 




4.6 


1245 


Veal: 














Leg cutlets 


68.3 


20.1 


7-5 




1.0 


695 


Fore quarter 


54-2 


i5-i 


6.0 




0.7 


535 


Mutton: 














Leg, hind 


5i-2 


i5-i 


14.7 




0.8 


890 


Loin chops 


42.0 


13.5 


28.3 




0.7 


1415 


Lamb 


49.2 


15.6 


16.3 




0.85 


967 


Ham: 














Loin chops 


41.8 


134 


24.2 




0.8 


1245 


Ham, smoked 


34-8 


14.2 


334 




4.2 


1635 


Sausage : 














Frankfurter 


57.2 


19.6 


18.6 


I.I 


34 


1 155 


Poultry: 














Fowls 


47.1 


13-7 


12.3 




0.7 


765 


Goose 


38.5 


13-4 


29.8 




0.7 


1475 


Turkey 


42.4 


16.1 


18.4 




0.8 


1060 


Animal Viscera: 














Liver (sheep) 


61.2 


23.1 


9.0 


5-o 




.... 


Sweetbreads 


70.9 


16.8 


12. 1 




V.6 


.... 


Tongue, smoked and 














salted 


35-7 


24-3 


31.6 




8-5 


.... 


Brain: 


80.6 


8.8 


9-3 




I.I 


.... 


Fresh Fish: 














Bass large-mouthed 














Black, dressed 


41.9 


10.3 


o.5 




0.6 


215 


Cod steaks 


72.4 


16.9 


0.5 




1.0 


335 


Shad roe 


71.2 


234 


3-8 




1.6 


595 


Whitefish, dressed 


^46. 1 


10.2 


1-3 




0.7 


245 



Classification of Foods 



55 















3*2 


FOOD MATERIALS 


4-S 

h 2 


"7! W 


0) 


O ni v 




a> 


■a a o 




9i y 


£ O 





^So 







£ft 


Pm ft 


15 <-■ 


is 70 t. 
O.C ft 


< ft 


§6-1 

fe ftO 


Preserved Fish: 














Halibut, salted, 














smoked and dried 


46.O 


19.1 


14.O 


.... 


1.9 


945 


Sardines, canned 


53-6 


24.0 


12. 1 




5-3 


955 


Salmon, canned 


59-3 


19-3 


15-3 




1.2 


1005 


Mollusks : 














Oysters, solid 


88.3 


6.1 


1.4 


3-3 


0.9 


235 


Round clams re- 














moved from shell 


80.8 


10.6 


1.1 


5-i 


2-3 


340 


Mussels 


42.7 


44 


o-5 


2.1 


1.0 


140 


Crustaceans: 














Lobster, in shell 


3I.I 


5-5 


0.7 




0.6 


130 


Crab, in shell 


34-i 


7-3 


0.9 


0.5 


1.4 


185 


Shrimp, canned 


70.8 


254 


1.0 


0.2 


2.6 


520 


Terrapin, turtle, etc. 


17.4 


4.2 


0.7 




0.2 


105 



The amount of fat in meat varies from two to forty 
per cent., according to the animal and to its condition 
at the time of killing. 

The best meats are from young animals which have 
been kept fat and have not been subjected to any 
work to toughen the muscles. 

It is possible to combine the fat and the lean of meat 
so as to meet the requirements of the body with- 
out waste. About ninety-seven per cent, of meat 
is assimilated by the system, while a large part 
of the vegetable matter consumed is excreted as 
refuse. 

The compounds contained in animal foods are much 
like those of the body, therefore they require compara- 
tively little digestion to prepare them for assimila- 
tion — this work having been done by the animal — 
while the vegetable compounds require much change 



56 What to Eat and When 

by the digestive system before they can be used in 
the body. 

The proportion of albuminoids, gelatinoids, and 
extractives in meat vary with different meats and with 
different cuts of the same meat. 

The albuminoids of meat include the meat tissue, 
or the muscle cells. These constitute by far the 
greater part of the meat. 

The gelatinoids are derived from the connective 
tissue forming the sheath of the muscle and of bundles 
of muscles, the skin, tendons, and the casing of bone. 
Gelatins are made from these and, if pure and pre- 
pared in a cleanly manner, they are wholesome. - 

Gelatin is distinguishable in rich meat soups, which 
jelly when cool. 

The gelatinoids alone have not a large nutritive 
value; they serve to spare the albumin from being 
used, though they cannot replace albumin in the diet. 
They also, to some extent, keep the muscles from being 
consumed when starches, sugars, and fats are lacking. 

The extractives are found most abundantly in the 
flesh of animals and birds noted for their muscular 
activity, as in game. Some of them exert a stimulant 
action on the nervous system and others are appetiz- 
ers, giving to cooked meats, broths, etc., their pleasing 
flavor. In case of anemia, in which it is necessary to 
build red blood corpuscles, the blood of beef, the 
thought of which is usually repellent, may be made 
very palatable if it is heated sufficiently to bring out 
the flavor of the extractives, and then seasoned. 

Unless the beef extracts on the market contain the 
blood tissue, in addition to the extractives, they are 
not particularly nourishing and are only valuable in 
soups, etc., as appetizers. 



Classification of Foods 57 

Soups for nourishment should be made by cooking 
the bones, connective tissue, and a part of the meat. 
Bones and connective tissue alone make an appetizing 
soup, but it contains little nutriment. 

One reason why meat soups should constitute the 
first course at dinner is because the extractives stimu- 
late the appetite and start the flow of gastric juices. 
Bouillons contain no nourishment, but they may be 
used as stimulant restoratives to the muscles, or as 
a basis for vegetables, rice, or barley to give them 
flavor. 

Roasted flesh seems to be more completely digested 
than boiled meat; raw meat is more easily digested 
than cooked; rare meat is more easily digested than 
that thoroughly cooked. 

Roasted young chicken and veal are tender, easily 
masticated, and easily and rapidly digested in the 
stomach. This is one reason why the white meats 
are considered a good diet for the invalid, though 
veal is usually avoided in cases of dyspepsia, as, if 
too young, it may cause diarrhea; if too old, it is less 
digestible than beef. 

Fat meats remain in the stomach a much longer 
time than lean meats; thus, gastric digestion of pork, 
which usually contains much fat, is especially difficult, 
requiring from three and one-half to four hours 
(seepage 22). 

Preserved and canned meats should be eaten with 
the utmost caution, care being taken to know that 
they are put up by firms which use extreme care in 
their preparation. Inferior meat is sometimes used 
in the preparation of these foods. If meats are not 
fresh and the canning not carefully done, they may 
become putrid after being put up. 



58 What to Eat and When 

Fish and seafoods are, many of them, rich in protein, 
as noted in Table IV. They should never be used 
unless absolutely fresh. 

The idea is prevalent that fish is a brain food. Fish 
is easily digested and builds brain as well as other 
tissue, but no more readily than beef does, or any 
easily digested, absorbed and assimilated food which 
contains a goodly proportion of protein. 

Lobsters are difficult of digestion and contain little 
nutrition, so are not valuable as a food, though they 
are relished by many on account of their flavor. 

Oysters, raw, are easier to digest than when cooked. 
Oysters should not be eaten during the spawning season 
from May to September. 

Mussels are nutritious when well prepared and are 
rapidly gaining in popularity. 

Clams furnish a valuable and nutritious food when 
prepared in chowder form. Clam broth will often 
be retained on an irritable stomach when other food 
is rejected by it. 

Care should be taken to ascertain the method of 
their production as typhoid fever has been contracted 
from eating shell fish whose feeding beds were near or 
in polluted water. 

Eggs are excellent articles of food for 
nutrition and for tissue building. They 
have practically the same value in the diet as meat, 
and make a very good substitute for meat. Egg 
yolk in abundance is often prescribed when it is 
necessary to supply a very nutritious and easily as- 
similated diet. 

Eggs consist chiefly of two nutrients— protein and 
fat (ten per cent.). Because they contain so large a 



Classification of Foods 59 

proportion of protein they are classified as nitrogenous 
foods. 

The yolk, which is about one-third fat, contains 
iron, sulphur, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and 
phosphorus. The white contains some fat and phos- 
phorus. The white and the yolk contain equal 
quantities of protein. The white of the egg is almost 
pure albumin. 

The dark stain made by eggs on silver is due to the 
sulphur. 

The iron in the yolk is a valuable assistant in build- 
ing red blood corpuscles. 

Eggs, in common with other proteins, are changed, 
mostly in the stomach, into peptone. That not 
digested in the stomach, as is the case with other 
proteins, is changed in the intestine. 

If the egg is old, or if its absorption is delayed in the 
intestine, it decomposes, producing gas, and may cause 
intestinal disorder. For this reason no stale egg 
should ever be served, especially to an invalid. 

One reason why eggs disagree with some is because 
too much fat is eaten at the same time. Egg yolk 
contains fat and if much extra fat is eaten indigestion 
and fermentation in the intestine may result. This 
is particularly true in those who digest fat with 
difficulty. 

When eggs seem to disagree or the system does not 
assimilate them well on account of the fat in the 
yolk, and eggs are desirable to supply the protein in 
the diet, the whites, which contain practically no 
fat, may be used. They should be well beaten and 
if digestion is weak they may be mixed with fruit 
juices. 

The citric acid in lemons and oranges partially 



60 What to Eat and When 

digests the egg, the gastric juice quickly changing it 
to peptone. 

One method of preparing eggs, which is especially 
valuable for those having delicate stomachs, is in egg 
lemonade or orangeade. Thoroughly beat the egg, 
add the juice of half a lemon or orange, sugar to taste, 
and fill the glass with water. 

Grape juice, cream, and cocoa, if assimilated, may 
be used in place of lemon or orange, in order to give 
variety when it is necessary to use eggs freely. 

Eggnog is another means of taking raw eggs. 

One method of testing the freshness of eggs is to 
drop them into a strong, salt brine made by adding 
two ounces of salt to a pint of water. A fresh egg 
will at once sink to the bottom. If the egg is three 
days old the surface of the shell will be even with the 
surface of the water and an egg two weeks old will 
float mostly above the surface. 

The opinion is prevalent that a hard-boiled egg is 
difficult of digestion, but this depends entirely on the 
mastication. If it is masticated so that it is a pulp 
before being swallowed, a hard-boiled egg is readily 
digested. 

A soft-boiled egg should not be boiled longer than 
three or four minutes, or better, should be put into 
warm water, be allowed to come to a boil, then set 
off the fire and the egg be allowed to remain in the 
water for ten minutes. This method cooks the egg 
through more evenly. 

Another method of cooking the yolk evenly with 
the white is to put the egg in cold water, let the water 
come to a boil, and again immerse the egg in cold 
water. The immersing in cold water after boiling 
makes hard-boiled eggs peel readily. 



Classification of Foods 



61 



CARBO-NITROGENOUS FOODS 

Under this class come cereals, legumes, nuts, milk, 
and milk products. In these foods the nitrogenous 
and carbonaceous elements are more evenly propor- 
tioned than in either the carbonaceous or nitrogenous 
groups. The different food elements in this group 
are so evenly divided that one could live for a con- 
siderable length of time on any one food. Some 
animals build flesh from nuts alone, while the her- 
bivorous animals live on cereals and plants. 



Cereals 



Under cereals, used by man for food, come wheat, 
oats, rye, barley, rice, and corn. As 
will be noted by Table V, cereals contain 
a large proportion of starch and are therefore used 
largely for heat and energy. Rice contains the largest 
proportion and next to rice, wheat flour. 

TABLE V 

Cereals 







_ +> 




Carbohydrates 




FOOD MATERIALS 




u 


+> 




^"3 


c a 


"8 


r^G 


a 


a 




U 0} 


*|8 


0) 




8 


<a v 


8 




rt u 


O u 


"£J *H 


r5 u 


5 ^ 


j3 t. 




M 


fc ft 


rt « 

fe ft 


CO ft 


oa 


-3 8. 


Wheat 


IO.4 


12. 1 


2.1 


71.6 


1.8 


1.9 


Rice 


12.4 


74 


O.4 


79.2 


0.2 


0.4 


Oats 


II.O 


11.8 


5-o 


59-7 


9-5 


3-o 


Rye 


11.6 


10.6 


1.7 


72.0 


i-7 


1.9 


Breads and Crackers: 














Wheat bread 


3 2 -5 


8.8 


1.9 


55-8 




1.0 


Graham bread 


34-2 


9-5 


1.4 


53-3 




1.6 


Rye bread 


30.0 


34 


0.5 


59-7 




1.4 



62 



What to Eat and When 





05 u 


rtfl 
« 
^ 
u <u 
0* ft 


a 



«o CO 

fe ft 


Carbohydrates 




FOOD MATERIALS 


6 



R a 

O ft 


i 

8 

<ft 


Soda crackers 
Graham crackers 
Oatmeal crackers 
Oyster crackers 
Macaroni 
Flours and Meals: 
Flour, wheat 
Corn Meal 
Oatmeal 


8.0 
5-o 
4-9 
3-8 
I3-I 

12.5 

15.0 

7.6 


IO.3 

9-8 

IO.4 

II-3 
9.0 

II.O 
9.2 

i5-i 


94 
13-5 
13-7 

4.8 

0.3 

1.0 
3-8 
7-i 


70.5 
69.7 
69.6 

77-5 
76.8 

74-9 
70.6 
68.2 




1.8 
2.0 
1.4 
2.6 
0.8 

0.5 
1.4 
2.0 



The values as given in the table refer to the whole 
of the grain. When the outer coverings are removed, 
as in the white flour and the outer covering of rice, 
the proportion of carbohydrates is increased and the 
protein and ash are almost entirely eliminated. 

There is no part of the world, except the Arctic 
regions, where cereals are not extensively cultivated. 
From the oats and rye of the north, to the rice of the 
hot countries, grains of some kind are staple foods. 

An idea of the importance of cereal foods in the diet may be 
gathered from the following data, based on the results obtained 
in dietary studies with a large number of American families: 
Vegetable foods, including flour, bread, and other cereal products, 
furnished 55 per cent, of the total food, 39 per cent, of the protein, 
8 per cent, of the fat, and 95 per cent, of the carbohydrates of 
the diet. The amounts which cereal foods alone supplied were 
22 per cent, of the total food, 31 per cent, of the protein, 7 per 
cent, of the fat and 55 per cent, of the total carbohydrates — 
that is, about three-quarters of the vegetable protein, one-half of 
the carbohydrates, and seven-eighths of the vegetable fat were 
supplied by the cereals. Oat, rice, and wheat breakfast foods 



Classification of Foods 63 

together furnished about 2 per cent, of the total food in protein, 
1 per cent, of the total fat, and 4 per cent, of the carbohydrates 
of the ordinary mixed diet, as shown by the statistics cited. 
These percentage values are not high in themselves, but it must 
be remembered that they represent large quantities when we 
consider the food consumed by a family in a year. T 

If one's work calls for extreme muscular exertion, 
the cereals may be eaten freely, but if one's habits 
are sedentary, and the cereals are used in excess, there 
is danger of clogging the system with too much starch. 
Indeed, for one whose occupation is indoors and re- 
quires little muscular activity, a very little cereal 
food, such as bread, cake, etc., will suffice; the car- 
bohydrates will be supplied, in sufficient quantity, 
in vegetables. 

Mineral matter is supplied in sufficient quantity 
in almost all classes of foods. 

Cereals and legumes supply nutrients at less price 
than any class of foods; therefore a vegetarian diet 
involves less expense than the mixed diet. An en- 
tirely vegetarian diet, however, gradually induces 
a condition of muscular weakness in many people, 
resulting in a loss of strength. A well-proportioned 
mixed diet is best to give strength and activity of both 
body and mind. 

Meat, eggs, and milk, which usually supply the 
proteins, are the most expensive foods, and when 
these, for any cause, are eliminated, a large proportion 
of proteins should be supplied by the legumes. 

Perhaps no food is as commonly used as 

. , . ., . - T , . Wheat 

wheat in its various forms. It is com- 
posed of: 

1 Charles D. Woods, Dr. Sc, in Cereal Breakfast Foods. 



64 What to Eat and When 

1. The nitrogenous or protein compound, chiefly 
represented in the cerealin and the gluten of the bran. 
This is removed from white flour and from much of 
the so-called " whole wheat" flour. 

2. The starch — the center or white part of the 
kernel. 

3. The fats, occurring chiefly in the germ of the 
grain. 

4. The phosphorus compounds, iron, and lime, 
found in the bran. 

The kernel of wheat consists of the bran or cover- 
ing, which surrounds the white, pulpy mass of starch 
within. In the lower end of the kernel is the germ. 

Flour. In the old-time process of making flour 
the wheat was crushed between stones and then sifted, 
first, through a sieve, which separated the outer shell 
of the bran; then through bolting cloth, which sepa- 
rated the white pulp from the inner bran coating. 
It was not ground as fine as in the present process, 
thus the gluten, phosphorus, and iron (all valuable 
substances) were, in the old process, nearly all left 
out of the white flour. The second bran coating, 
left by the second sifting, was not so coarse as the 
outer shell but coarser than the inner. Care was not 
formerly observed in having the grain clean before 
grinding, the bran containing chaff and dirt, so that 
it was not used as food but was considered valuable 
for stock, and was called "middlings." 

In the modern process of crushing the wheat be- 
tween steel rollers, the white flour of to-day contains 
more of the protein from the inner coat of the bran 
than the white flour of the old process; hence, it is 
more nutritious. 

Bran. Objection is sometimes made to bran be- 



Classification of Foods 65 

cause the cellulose shell is not digested, but bran 
contains much protein and mineral matter and even 
though it is crude fiber, as previously stated, this 
fiber has a value as a cleanser for the lining of the 
stomach and intestines, and for increasing peristalsis, 
thus encouraging the flow of digestive juices and the 
elimination of waste. In bread or breakfast foods, 
it is desirable to retain it for its laxative effect. 

Bran has three coats — the tough, glossy outside, 
within this a coat containing most of the coloring 
matter, and a third coat, containing a special kind of 
protein, known as cerealin. The two outer layers 
contain phosphorus compounds, lime, and iron. All 
three coats contain gluten. 

Gluten flour is made of the gluten of wheat. It. is 
a valuable, easily digested food, containing a large 
proportion of protein and little starch. Gluten 
bread is used by those who wish to reduce in flesh 
and in diabetic cases. 

Whole wheat flour does not contain the whole of the 
wheat, as the name implies; it, however, does contain 
all the proteins of the endosperm and the gluten and oil 
of the germ, together with all of the starch. As a 
flour, therefore, it is a more balanced food than the 
white flour, because it contains more nitrogenous 
elements. 

Graham flour is made from the entire wheat kernel 
with the exception of the outermost scale of the bran. 
It contains the starch, gluten phosphorus compounds, 
iron, and lime. It is the most desirable of the flours 
because, containing the bran, it assists in digestion 
and elimination, and the phosphorus, iron, and lime, 
are valuable body builders. 

Nutri meal is much the same as Graham flour, the 
5 



66 What to Eat and When 

chief difference being that the bran is ground finer. 
The wheat is ground between hot rollers, the heat 
bringing out the nutty flavor of the bran. Bread 
made from it is not only nutritious, but delicious in 
flavor. It contains all of the nutrition of the wheat. 

Bread. As must be implied from the foregoing, 
the nutri meal, or graham flours are necessary for 
bread if it is to be used as a complete food, the "staff 
of life." The white bread is made from flour which is 
almost pure starch; the lime, phosphorus compounds, 
and iron are removed. 

Perhaps no form of prepared food has been longer 
in vogue than bread. It has been known since his- 
tory began. When the entire wheat kernel is used 
it probably maintains and supports life and strength 
better than any single food, but bread is not the "staff 
of life" unless the entire kernel is in the flour. 

Children should be given Graham bread or Graham 
crackers containing the whole of the grain in order 
to obtain the balanced food and the nutritive materials 
which are not obtained in bread made of white flour. 
Lime for the teeth and the growing bones is in the 
bran. 

The more porous the bread the more easily it 
digests. When full of pores, it is more readily mixed 
with the digestive juices. 

The pores in bread are produced by the effort of 
the gas, released by the yeast, to escape. When 
mixed with water, the flour forms a tenacious body 
which, when warm, expands under the pressure of 
the gas from the yeast, until the dough is full of gas- 
filled holes. The walls of gluten do not allow the 
gas to escape, and thus the dough is made light and 
porous. The more gluten the flour holds, the more 



Classification of Foods 67 

water the dough will take up and the greater will be 
the yield of bread; hence, the more gluten, the more 
valuable the flour. If the bread is not porous, the 
fermentation is not complete, and the bread is heavy. 

The albumin in the walls of the expanding bubbles 
causes substances which contain beaten eggs to be 
more porous when baked. 

Yeast is a plant fungus. In its feeding, the plant 
consumes sugar, changing it into alcohol and carbon 
dioxid. If the bread contains no sugar the yeast 
plant will change the starch in the flour into sugar for 
its feeding. 

Many housewives, realizing that the bread begins 
to "rise" quicker if it contains sugar, put a little into 
the sponge. Unless a large quantity of sugar is put 
in, the yeast will consume it and the bread will not 
have an unduly sweet taste. 

As the yeast causes fermentation, alcohol forms 
in the dough. This is driven off in the baking. If 
the bread is not thoroughly baked, fermentation 
continues and the bread turns sour. 

Bread is not thoroughly baked until fermentation 
ceases. It is claimed that fermentation does not 
entirely cease with one baking; this is the basis of 
the theory, held by some, that bread should be twice 
baked. The average housekeeper bakes an ordinary 
loaf one hour. 

Time must be given for the products of fermentation 
to evaporate, during the cooling of the bread, before 
it is eaten. 

Hot or insufficiently cooked bread is difficult of 
digestion, because it becomes more or less soggy on 
entering the mouth and the stomach, and the saliva 
and gastric juices cannot so readily mix with it. 



68 What to Eat and When 

The best flour for bread is that made from the 
spring wheat, grown in cooler climates, because it is 
richer in gluten than the winter wheat. The winter 
wheat flour is used more for cakes and pastries. 

Bread made with milk, is, of course, richer and 
more nutritious than that made with water, and 
bread made with potato water contains more starch ; 
both of these retain their moisture longer than bread 
made without them. 

Mold, which sometimes forms on bread, is, like 
the yeast, a minute plant. It is floating about every- 
where in the air, ready to settle down wherever it 
finds a suitable home. Moisture and heat favor its 
growth; hence bread should be thoroughly cooled 
before it is put into a jar or bread box. The bread 
box should be ventilated and kept in a cool place. 

Rye bread contains a little more starch and less 
protein than wheat bread. It contains more water 
and holds its moisture longer. 

Biscuits. The objection to eating hot bread does 
not hold for baking powder or soda biscuits, if well 
cooked, because these cool more rapidly and they do 
not contain the yeast plant ; hence, they do not ferment 
as does the bread. 

Baking powder is made from bicarbonate of soda 
(baking soda) and cream of tartar. When these are 
brought in contact with moisture, carbon dioxid is 
liberated, and in the effort to escape it causes the 
dough to expand and become light. 

Breads made with pure baking powder are whole- 
some and, when light, are digestible. When made 
with cheap baking powder, however, in which alum 
or ammonia is employed, the stomach may be irri- 
tated by the chemical substances contained. 



Classification of Foods 69 

The reason that the cook attempts to bake her 
biscuits, or anything made with baking powder, as 
quickly as possible after the baking powder comes in 
contact with the moisture, is that the dough may have 
the full effect of the expansion of the gas. If the 
room in which she mixes her dough is cool, or if her 
biscuit dough is left in a cool place, this is not impor- 
tant, as heat and moisture are both required for full 
combustion. Enough baking powder biscuit dough 
may be mixed at one time to provide biscuits every 
morning for a week, if buried in flour immediately 
after mixing so that it is kept cool and from the air. 
A portion may be cut off each morning and the re- 
mainder again buried in the flour. 

Macaroni and spaghetti are made from a special 
wheat flour known as Durum. They contain about 
seventy-seven per cent, of starch, little fat, and little 
protein. They may take the place of bread, rice, or 
potato at a meal. 

Rice is a staple cereal in all tropical and temperate 
climates. It requires special machinery to remove 
the husk and the dark, outer skin of the kernel. 

The polished rice commonly used, is almost pure 
starch, and, like white flour, lacks the nutritive quali- 
ties contained in the husk or covering. 

It is seldom eaten within three months after har- 
vesting and it is considered even better after two or 
three years. It requires thorough cooking. 

Wild rice is used by the North American Indians. 
The seeds are longer, thinner, and darker, than the 
cultivated rice. It is coming into favor as a side dish 
but it is served more particularly at hotels in soup 
and with game. 

As previously stated, rice contains a larger propor- 



70 What to Eat and When 

tion of starch than any other cereal and the smallest 
proportion of protein. Next to rice, in starches, 
comes wheat flour; yet whole wheat or graham flour 
contain half as much again of protein. 

Because of the quantity of starch in flour, potatoes, 
and rice, it is obvious that one should not eat freely 
of more than one of these at the same meal, else the 
digestive organs will be overworked in converting the 
starch into sugar, the liver overworked in converting 
the sugar into glycogen and back again into sugar, 
and be overloaded in storing it up. 

By far the best plan is to eat but one cereal at a 
meal. 

Rice contains no gluten, hence it cannot be raised 
in bread. 

Unhusked rice is called paddy. The "vitamins" 
of rice are in the covering. 

A German investigator, working to discover the 
cause of the disorder of nutrition known as "beri- 
beri" occurring in those who used polished rice freely, 
found that in those who used unpolished rice, from 
which the outer husk had not been removed, the 
disease did not appear. He gave the name of "vita- 
min" to the substance in the outer husk, which pre- 
vented the disease. 

While these substances were discovered while 
working with rice, they have since come to include 
other substances which affect the nutritive value of 
food. The term "vitamin" has since been given to 
other apparently necessary elements in foods which 
seem to determine their nutritive value to the system. 
These necessary elements, "vitamins," may be the 
spices and flavors used in the food, and sometimes, 
perhaps, may be the flavors resulting from the action 



Classification of Foods 71 

of benign bacteria, as those which give the delicious 
flavor to butter and cheese. 

Food, however nutritious, is lessened in its value to 
the system unless it appeals to the senses by its mode 
of preparation, seasoning, serving, and freshness. 
Sternberg insists that the senses of smell and taste 
determine chemical changes in foods with greater 
sensitiveness than chemical tests. 

Dishes unskillfully prepared are not relished. Some 
chemical change has occurred which the senses detect 
and these dishes are rendered less wholesome, lacking 
the necessary "vitamin." Distaste, loss of appetite, 
and even nausea and vomiting may occur. 

Sternberg calls attention anew to the fact that the 
science of cooking is a complicated one and is a matter 
of taste in the widest sense of the term, that vitamins 
may largely be produced in the preparation of the 
food. 

Corn (maize) is a native of America and has been 
one of the most extensively used cereals. 

The chief products of corn are hominy, corn meal, 
cracked corn, samp, glucose, corn-starch and laundry 
starch. Alcohol is also made from it. 

Corn bread and corn-meal mush were important 
foods with the early settlers, partly because they are 
nutritious and partly because the corn meal was easily 
prepared at the mill and was cheap. 

The germ of the corn is larger in proportion than 
the germs of other grains, and it contains much fat; 
therefore it is heating. For this reason, it is strange 
that corn bread is so largely used by inhabitants of 
the southern states. It is a more appropriate food 
for winter in cold climates. 

Because of the fat in the germ, corn meal readily 



72 What to Eat and When 

turns rancid, and, on this account, the germ is sepa- 
rated and omitted from many corn-meal preparations. 

Hulled corn, sometimes called lye hominy, is one 
of the old-fashioned ways of using corn. In its pre- 
paration, the skin is loosened by steeping the corn 
in a weak solution of lye, which gives it a peculiar 
flavor, pleasing to many. 

Corn-meal mush is a valuable breakfast food if eaten 
with milk. If fried it should be covered with flour 
or dry corn meal and fried in deep fat, so that it does 
not soak up the fat. 

Pop-corn. The bursting of the shell in popping 
corn is due to the expansion of the moisture in the 
starch, occasioned by the heat. 

Green sweet corn does not contain the same propor- 
tion of starch as corn meal, it being, in its tender state, 
mostly water. It is laxative, because it is eaten with 
the coarse hull, which causes more rapid peristalsis 
of the intestines. It should be well masticated to 
break the covering of the husk; the digestive juices 
cannot penetrate the hard covering. 

The claims made for various advertised 
Brc3.kf3.st 
F . breakfast foods would be amusing if they 

were not intended to mislead. Nearly all 
of them have sufficient merit to sell them if the adver- 
tiser confines himself strictly to the truth, but the 
ever pertinent desire to excel, which is one great 
incentive to progress, leads to exaggeration. For ex- 
ample : the claim is sometimes made that they contain 
more nutriment than the same quantity of beef. 
Reference to Table V does not bear out such a state- 
ment. They contain more starch but less protein. 
It is also claimed by some advertisers that break- 



Classification of Foods 



73 



fast foods are brain and nerve foods. The idea that 
certain foods are brain and nerve foods is erroneous, 
except that any tissue-building food (protein) builds 
nerve and brain tissue as it builds any other tissue, 
and the foods which produce heat and energy for 
other tissues produce the same for brain and nerve. 

The grains commonly used for breakfast foods are 
corn, oats, rice, and wheat. Barley, and wild rice, mil- 
let and buckwheat are used in some sections, but not 
enough to warrant discussion here. 

Barley is used chiefly for making malt and in the 
form of pearled barley is used in soups. 

Table VI, from one of the bulletins published 
by the United States Department of Agriculture, is 
interesting from an economical standpoint. 

TABLE VI 

Comparative Cost of Digestible Nutrients and Available 
Energy in Different Cereal Breakfast Foods 





c 
a 
o 
P. 
u 


o 


>> 

bo 
u 

8*8 


Amount for 10 cents 


FOOD MATERIALS 








01 






Pi 


OrO 


"oo) 




g 






bo 




4) 


-u c 




** 






.Q w, 


u 




O 


w 3 
O o 


s| 





cd 


■8 £ 


a 




£ 


Op, 


og 


H"8 


Ph 


to 


O.U 


w 


Oat preparations: 
















Oatmeal, raw 


3 


0.24 


i-7 


3-33 


0.42 


0.22 


2.18 


5884 


" 


4 


0.32 


2.3 


2.50 


0.31 


0.16 


1.64 


4418 


Rolled oats, steam 


















cooked 


6 


0.48 


3-4 


1.67 


0.21 


0.11 


1.08 


2938 


Wheat preparations: 


















Flour, Graham 


4 


0.40 


2.6 


2.50 


O.25 


0.01 


1.61 


3790 


Flour, entire-wheat 


5 


0.46 


3-i 


2.00 


0.22 


0.03 


1.36 


3188 


Flour, patent 


3-5 


o-35 


2.1 


2.86 


O.29 


0.03 


2.10 


4700 


Farina 


io 


1. 12 


6.2 


1. 00 


O.O9 


0.01 


0-73 


1609 



74 



What to Eat and When 





c 

O 
ft 
u 


.S 



>> 

bo 
G 

2^ 


Amount for 10 cents 


POOD MATERIALS 


3a_ 

arc 












ft 

u 


w 3 


oj> 

w O 




a 

'5 
"8 


-P 


■ 8 


2 




'u 

ft 


O ft 


U 


0^ 


& 


cd 
ft 




ft 


Wheat Prepara- 


















tions — ( Continued) 


















Flaked 


15 


I.69 


9-3 


0.67 


0.06 


O.OI 


0.46 


1005 


Shredded 


12.5 


1.62 


8.2 


0.80 


0.06 


0.01 


0.57 


1217 


Parched & ground 


7.5 


0.88 


4.9 


1-33 


O.I I 


0.02 


0.94 


2050 


Malted,cooked and 


















crushed 


13 


1-43 


8.5 


0.77 


0.07 


O.OI 


0.53 


1175 


Flaked and malted 


II 


1. 2 1 


7.2 


0.91 


0.08 


O.OI 


0.62 


1389 


Barley preparations: 


















Pearled barley- 


7 


1.06 


4.6 


143 


0.09 


O.OI 


1.04 


2165 


Flaked, steam 


















cooked 


15 


1.83 


9.6 


0.67 


0.05 




0.50 


1051 


Corn preparations: 


















Corn meal, granu- 


















lar 


3 


0.44 


1.8 


3-33 


0.23 


0.06 


2.48 


5534 


Hominy 


4 


0.62 


2.4 


2.50 


0.16 


O.OI 


1.97 


4178 


Samp 


5 


0.78 


3-o 


2.00 


0.13 


O.OI 


i-57 


3342 


Flaked & parched 


13 


1-73 


7-5 


0.77 


0.06 


O.OI 


0.60 


1335 


Rice preparations: 


















Rice, polished 


8 


1.48 


4-7 


1.25 


0.07 




0.94 


1855 


Flaked, steam 


















cooked 


15 


2.31 


9.8 


0.67 


0.04 




0.51 


1026 


Miscellaneous foods 


















for comparison: 


















Bread, white 


6 


0.74 


5-o 


1.67 


0.14 


0.02 


0.87 


2009 


<< 


5 


0.62 


4.2 


2.00 


0.16 


0.02 


1.04 


2406 


Crackers 


10 


1. 10 


5-3 


1. 00 


0.09 


0.08 


0.71 


1905 


Macaroni 


12.5 


1.08 


7-5 


0.80 


0.09 


0.01 


0.58 


1328 


; Beans, dried 


5 


0.28 


3-5 


2.00 


0.35 


0.03 


1. 16 


2868 


Peas, dried 


5 


0.26 


34 


2.00 


0.38 


0.02 


1.20 


2974 


Milk 


3 


0.94 


9-7 


3-33 


0.1 1 


0.13 


0.17 


1030 


t< 


3.5 


1.09 


II-3 


2.86 


0.09 


0.1 1 


0.14 


885 


Sugar 


5 




2.8 


2.00 






2.00 


3515 


« 


6 




34 


1.67 






1.67 


2940 



The less expensive breakfast foods, such as oatmeal 
and corn meal, are as economical as flour, and, as they 
supply heat and energy in abundance, as shown by 



Classification of Foods 75 

Table VI, they should be supplied in the diet in pro- 
portion to the energy required. They are easily 
prepared for porridge, requiring simply to be boiled 
in water, with a little salt. 

For invalids, children, and old people, breakfast 
foods prepared in gruels and porridges are valuable 
as they are easily digested. All should be thoroughly 
cooked so as to break the cell-walls inclosing the 
starch granules. 

Oatmeal is the most nutritious cereal. The oat con- 
tains more fat than other grains and a larger propor- 
tion of protein. It, therefore, contains the proportion 
of nutrient elements best adapted to sustain life. 

On account of the fat, oats are especially well 
adapted for a breakfast food in winter. Another 
advantage oatmeal, or rolled oats, have as a breakfast 
food is in their laxative tendency, due to the coarse 
shell of the kernel. 

Oat breakfast foods keep longer than the foods made 
from wheat and rice. 

There are no malts, or any mixtures in the oat 
preparations. 

The difference between the various oatmeal break- 
fast foods is in their manner of preparation. They 
all contain the entire grain, with the exception of the 
husk. They are simply the ground or crushed oat. 
In preparing the oats before grinding, the outer hull 
is removed, the fuzzy coating of the berry itself is 
scoured off, the ends of the berry, particularly the 
end containing the germ, which is usually the place 
of deposit for insect eggs, is scoured, and the bitter 
tip end of the oat berry is likewise removed. 

Rolled oats consist of the whole berry of the oat, 
ground into a coarse meal, either between millstones, 



76 What to Eat and When 

or, in the case of the so-called "steel cut" oatmeal, 
cut with sharp steel knives across the sections of the 
whole oat groat. 

Quaker Oats consist of the whole groats, which, after 
steaming in order to soften, have been passed between 
hot steel rolls, somewhat like a mangle in a laundry, 
and crushed into large, thin, partially cooked flakes. 
The oats are then further cooked by an open pan- 
drying process. This roasting process insures that all 
germ life is exterminated, renders the product capable 
of quicker preparation for the table, and causes the 
oil cells to release their contents, thereby producing 
what is termed the "nut flavor," which is not present 
in the old-fashioned type of oat product. 

Both Rolled Oats and Quaker Oats are now par- 
tially cooked in their preparation, but the starch cells 
must be thoroughly broken and they should be cooked 
at least forty-five minutes in a double boiler; or, a 
good way to prepare the porridge is to bring it to 
the boiling point at night, let it stand covered over 
night and then cook it from twenty to thirty minutes 
in the morning. Another method of cooking is to 
bring the porridge to the boiling point and then place 
it in a fireless cooker over night. 

The great fault in the preparation of an} 7 breakfast 
food is in not cooking it sufficiently to break the starch 
cells. 

Puffed Rice is made from a good quality of finished 
rice. The process is a peculiar One, the outer covering 
or bran, is removed and then the product is literally 
"shot from guns"; that is, a quantity of the rice is 
placed in metal retorts, revolved slowly in an oven, 
at high temperature, until the pressure of steam, as 
shown by a gauge on the gun, indicates that the steam, 



Classification of Foods 77 

generated slowly by the moisture within the grain 
itself, has thoroughly softened the starch cells. The 
gun retort is pointed into a wire cage and the cap 
which closes one end is removed, permitting an inrush 
of cold air. This cold air, on striking the hot steam, 
causes expansion, which amounts practically to an 
explosion. The expansion of steam within each 
starch cell completely shatters the cell, causing the 
grain to expand to eight times its original size. It 
rushes out of the gun and into the cage with great 
force, after which it is screened to remove all scorched 
or imperfectly puffed grains. 

This process dextrinizes a portion of the starch and 
also very materially increases the amount of soluble 
material as against the original proportion in the grain. 

Puffed Wheat is manufactured from Durum, or 
macaroni wheat, of the very highest grade. This is 
a very hard, glutinous grain. It is pearled in order to 
thoroughly clean and take off the outer covering of 
bran. It then goes through a puffing process, iden- 
tical with that of Puffed Rice. The chemical changes 
are very similar to those of puffed rice. 

Both Puffed Rice and Puffed Wheat are more digest- 
ible than in the original grain state. They are valu- 
able foods for invalids. 

Stale Bread. A food which tastes much like a pre- 
pared breakfast food, but is cheaper, may be made 
by dipping stale bread into molasses and water, dry- 
ing it in the oven for several hours, and then crushing 
it. It is then ready to serve with cream. This is a 
palatable way to use up stale bread. 

Crackers and Milk or Bread and Milk. As noted 
by Table VI, crackers are similar to breakfast food 
in nutrient elements, and with milk make a good food 



78 What to Eat and When 

for breakfast, or a good luncheon. Business men, 
and others who eat hurriedly and return immediately 
to work, will do well to substitute crackers and milk, 
or bread and milk, for the piece of pie which often 
constitutes a busy man's lunch. 

Cracked Wheat. In America wheat is seldom used 
whole. In England the whole grain, with the bran 
left on, is slightly crushed and served as cracked wheat 
or wheat grits. 

Wheat is also rolled, or flaked, or shredded. The 
majority of wheat breakfast foods contain a part of 
the middlings and many of them bran. Farina and 
gluten preparations do not contain these, however. 

The preparations of the various breakfast foods are 
a secret of the manufacturers. The ready-to-eat 
brands are cooked, then they are either rolled or 
shredded, the shredding requiring special machinery 
to tear the steamed kernels; later they are dried, and, 
finally packed, sometimes in small biscuits. Many 
preparations are baked after being steamed, which 
turns them darker and makes them more crisp. Some 
preparations are steamed, then run through rollers, 
while still wet, and pressed into flakes or crackers. 

Predigested Foods. It is claimed that some foods 
are "partly digested and thus valuable for those with 
weak stomachs," but breakfast foods are largely 
starch and the starch is not digested by the gastric 
juice. It is digested by saliva and the ferments in 
the small intestine. These change the starch into 
dextrin and maltose. 

Experiments with "predigested" foods do not show 
a larger proportion of dextrin (digested starch), how- 
ever, than would naturally be produced by the heating 
of the starch when these foods are cooked at home. 



Classification of Foods 79 

The natural cooking makes starch more or less soluble, 
or at least gelatinized. As a result of these experiments 
therefore, the "predigested" argument is not of much 
weight. 

Predigested foods, except in cases in which the 
patient is so weak as to be under the direction of a 
physician, are not desirable. Nature requires every 
organ to do the work intended for it, in order to keep 
up its strength, just as she requires exercise for the 
arms or legs to keep them strong. If an organ is 
weak, the cause must be found and corrected — perhaps 
the stomach or intestines need more blood, which 
should be supplied through exercise; or perhaps the 
nerves need relaxation; or the stomach less food; or 
food at more regular intervals. 

Another argument against predigested foods lies 
in the fact that the chewing of coarse food is neces- 
sary to keep the teeth strong. For this strengthening 
of the teeth, children should be given dry crackers 
or dry toast each day. 

Dogs and wild animals which chew bones and hard 
substances do not have pyorrhea, but lap-dogs and 
animals in the zoos, fed on bread and meat without 
bones, suffer from this disease. 

In the so-called " predigested" or "malted" prepa- 
rations, malt is added while they are being cooked. 

Malt is a ferment made from some grain, usually 
from barley, the grain being allowed to germinate 
until the ferment diastase is developed. 

There is no doubt that a number of foods contain- 
ing malt are valuable to assist in converting starch 
into dextrin or sugar, just as pepsin is an aid in the 
digestion of protein; but eaten indiscriminately, there 
can be no question that it is more important for the 



80 What to Eat and When 

teeth, stomach, and intestines to perform their natural 
work and thus keep their strength through normal 
exercise. 

While they are not "predigested," as claimed, these 
foods are, as a rule, wholesome and nutritious. They 
are cleanly, and made from good, sound grain, and 
they contain no harmful ingredients. Some contain 
"middlings," molasses, glucose, and similar materials, 
but these are in no way injurious and have value as 
foods. 

The dry, crisp, ready-to-eat foods are especially 
advantageous because of the mastication they require. 
This insures plenty of saliva being mixed with them 
to aid in digestion. A dish of such dry breakfast 
food, well masticated, together with an egg, to furnish 
a larger proportion of protein, makes a wholesome 
breakfast. 

According to investigations made by 
r ff the United States Agriculture Experiment 

Station, cereal coffees are made of parched 
grains. A few contain a little true coffee, but for the 
most part they are made of parched wheat, barley, 
etc., or of grain mixed with wheat middlings, pea 
hulls, or corn cobs. There is no objection to any of 
these mixtures providing they are clean. The cereal 
coffees, as seen by Table VII, contain no more nourish- 
ment than the true coffee, but they are probably 
more easily digested; only a very little of the soluble 
starch passes into the water unless the kernel is 
ground. Coffee and tea are not taken for their nu- 
trition, but for their stimulating effect on the nerves; 
and, if stimulation is desired, the cereal coffees fall 
short. 



Classification of Foods 



81 



TABLE VII 

Composition of Cereal-Coffee Infusion and Other 
Beverages 



KIND OF BEVERAGE 


u 


c 




S 
63 


u 




<u 


•2> 




-°±i 


~ sii 









■*> 


(hTJ 


« --j 3 




£ 








Ph> ft 


Commercial cereal coffee (0.5 












ounce to 1 pint water) 


98.2 


0.2 




1.4 


30 


Parched corn coffee (1.6 












ounces to 1 pint water) 


99-5 


0.2 




0-5 


13 


Oatmeal water (1 ounce to 1 












pint water) 


99-7 


0.3 




0-3 


II 


Coffee (1 ounce to 1 pint 












water) 


98.9 


0.2 




0.7 


16 


Tea (0.5 ounce to 1 pint water) 


99-5 


0.2 




0.6 


15 


Chocolate (0.5 ounce to 1 pint 












milk) 


84-5 


3-8 


4-7 


6.0 


365 


Cocoa (0.5 ounce to 1 pint 












water) 


97.1 


0.6 


0.9 


I.I 


65 


Skimmed milk 


88.8 


4.0 


1.8 


5-4 


170 



By reference to Table VII it will be seen that cocoa 
and skimmed milk contain much more nutrition than 
any of the coffees. The chief value of cereal coffees 
is that they furnish a warm drink with the meal. 
They should not be too hot. 

Barley or wheat, mixed with a little molasses, 
parched in the oven, and then ground, makes a mix- 
ture similar to the cereal coffee. 

The old-fashioned crust coffee is just as nutritious 
as any of the coffees and has the advantage of being 
cheaper. 

Barley water and oat water, made by boiling the 
ground kernel thoroughly and then straining, are 
nourishing foods for invalids and children. They are 



82 



What to Eat and When 



often used as drinks by athletes and manual laborers, 
as they have the advantage of both quenching thirst 
and supplying energy. 

Gruels are made in the same way, only strained 
through a sieve. This process allows more of the 
starch to pass with the water. 



Legumes 



The legumes are the seeds of peas, beans, 
lentils, and peanuts. 

TABLE VIII 
Legumes 





, a 


4-5 

c a 


G 


. -JS-S 


d 


2g5 


FOOD MATERIALS 


JO o 


•sg 





^58 


4) 
O 


t%% 




d u 


O U 


■** 1-1 


Id^ x 


■& U 


^ L.-2 




> ft 


U V 

Ph ft 


fe ft 


Oxi ft 


^ft 




Dried Legumes: 














Navy beans 


12.6 


22.5 


1.8 


59-6 


3-5 


1605 


Dried peas 


9-5 


24.6 


1.0 


62.O 


2.9 


1655 


Lentils 


8.4 


25-7 


1.0 


59-2 


5-7 


1620 


Lima beans 


10.4 


18.1 


i-5 


65-9 


4.1 


1625 


Peanuts 


9.2 


25.8 


38.6 


24.4 


2.0 


2560 


Peanut butter 


2.1 


29-3 


46-5 


17.1 


5-o 


2825 


Fresh Legumes: 














Canned peas 


85.3 


3-6 


0.2 


9.8 


1.1 


255 


Canned lima beans 


79-5 


4.0 


0.3 


14.6 


1.6 


360 


Canned string beans 


93-7 


1.1 


O.I 


3-8 


1-3 


95 


Canned baked beans 


68.9 


6.9 


2.5 


19.6 


2.1 


600 


String beans 


89.2 


2.3 


0.3 


74 


0.8 


195 


Shelled peas 


74.6 


7.0 


o.5 


16.9 


1.0 


465 



Like the cereals, they are seeds, yet they contain a 
very much larger proportion of protein and may be 
substituted for meat or eggs in a diet. In all vegeta- 
rian diets, under normal conditions, the legumes should 
be used freely to replace meats. 

All legumes must be thoroughly cooked and thor- 



Classification of Foods 83 

oughly masticated. Because the protein in these 
foods is less digestible than that in meat or eggs, parti- 
cularly if they are not thoroughly masticated, they 
are better adapted for the use of those who do manual 
labor. Soldiers in battle, day laborers, and others 
whose work calls for hard physical exercise, can digest 
legumes more easily than can those whose occupation 
is more sedentary. 

If not thoroughly masticated legumes usually 
produce intestinal fermentation with consequent pro- 
duction of gas. For this reason they occasion distress 
in those who partake of them too freely and with 
insufficient preparation by- cooking. 

The protein of the legumes is of the same nature 
as the casein of milk. It has been called vegetable 
casein. 

Peanuts. While an underground vegetable, grown 
like potatoes, peanuts resemble nuts, inasmuch as 
they contain so much fat. The extracted oil is used 
in several commercial products. 

Like other legumes, they require cooking. They 
are roasted because this develops the flavor. 

Because they contain a more balanced proportion 
of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, they will sustain 
life for some time without other food, as they provide 
rebuilding material, energy, and heat. Used alone, 
however, there is no counteracting acid, and it is 
better to add some fruit, such as apples, or apples and 
dates. For this reason lemon juice is mixed with 
peanut butter. 

In eating peanuts it is imperative that they be 
masticated until they are a pulp, otherwise they are 
very difficult of digestion. The pain which many 
people experience after eating peanuts is probably 



84 What to Eat and When 

due to eating too large a quantity and not fully masti- 
cating them, forgetting that they are a very rich, 
highly concentrated food. 

The habit of eating peanuts between meals and 
then eating a hearty meal is likely to overload the 
digestive organs. 

Both peanuts and peanut butter contain over 
twenty-five per cent, of protein and about thirty- 
nine per cent, of fat; therefore they yield much heat 
and energy. 

Peanuts have been made into a flour; they are also 
to be had in the form of grits which are cooked like 
oatmeal. When nuts or peanuts are used as an after- 
dinner relish the quantity of meat should be cut down. 

Their popularity is evidenced by the fact that 
between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000 bushels are raised 
annually in America. 

Peanut Butter. While peanut butter contains 46.5 
per cent, fat, it contains only seventeen per cent, carbo- 
hydrates. Since sugars and starches are protections 
to fat, being used for energy before the fats are con- 
sumed, if these sugars and starches are not supplied 
in other food, the fats in the peanut butter are con- 
sumed for energy. If starches are consumed in other 
foods, it is clear that one who wishes to reduce in 
flesh should avoid peanut butter, as well as other fats. 

Peanut butter is more easily digested than the 
roasted peanut, unless the latter is chewed to a pulp. 
It can be made at home by grinding the peanuts in a 
meat grinder, and then further mashing with a rolling 
pin or a wooden potato masher. A little lemon juice 
mixed with the peanut butter makes it not only more 
palatable, but more easily digested. A peanut butter 
sandwich is quite as nourishing as a meat sandwich. 



Classification of Foods 85 

Shelled Peas. Shelled peas were used in Europe as 
far back as in the Middle Ages, and there, to-day, the 
dried or "split" pea is used quite as extensively as the 
dried bean. In America, peas are used almost en- 
tirely in the green stage, fresh, or canned. 

As seen by Table VIII, the green, shelled pea con- 
tains seven per cent, of protein and sixteen per cent, 
of sugar and starch, while the dry or "split" pea 
contains over 24.5 per cent, of protein and sixty-two 
per cent, of sugar and starch, the difference being in 
the amount of water contained in the shelled peas. 
Canned peas contain even a larger percentage of 
water. 

A variety of the pea is now being cultivated, in 
which, like the string bean, the pod is used as a food. 
They are sweet and delicious. 

Dried peas are used in this country mostly in purees. 

Beans. Baked navy beans may well be substituted 
on a menu for meat, containing, as they do, 22.5 per 
cent, of protein. It is needless to state that beans 
and lean meat or eggs should not be served at the 
same meal. Beans have the advantage of being 
cheaper than meat, yet, as stated above, the protein 
in the legumes is less easily digested than the protein 
of meat or eggs. They must be thoroughly cooked 
and thoroughly masticated. 

There is but a small percentage of fat in dried beans; 
for this reason they are usually baked with a piece 
of pork. They make a very complete, perhaps the 
most complete food, containing nutrient elements in 
about the proper proportions. 

A bean biscuit is used for the sustenance of soldiers 
on a march; it gives a complete food in condensed 
form. 



86 What to Eat and When 

In baking dried beans or peas, soft or distilled 
water should be used, as the lime of hard water makes 
the shell almost indigestible. Parboiling the beans 
for fifteen minutes in two quarts of water with a 
quarter of a teaspoon of baking soda softens the 
shell, making them easier to digest. 

String Beans. The string bean contains very- 
little nutrition, as shown by Table VIII. The pod 
and the bean, at this unripe stage, contain nearly 
ninety per cent, water. Their chief value as a food 
consists in their appetizing quality to those who are 
fond of them, thus stimulating the flow of gastric 
juice. 

Like all green vegetables they stimulate the action 
of the kidneys. All green vegetables are particularly 
valuable to those who drink little water. 

The dried Lima bean, used during the winter, may 
be boiled or baked. If old, they are practically 
indigestible. 

Kidney Beans contain much water but are more 
nutritious than the string bean. 

Soy Bean. In China and Japan this bean is used 
extensively. Being rich in protein, used with rice 
it makes a well-balanced diet. 

The soy bean is made into various preparations, 
one of the most important being shoyo, which has 
been introduced into other countries. To make it, 
the soy bean is cooked and mixed with roasted wheat 
flour and salt; into this is put a special ferment. 
It is then allowed to stand for an extended time in 
casks. The result is a thick, brown liquid with a 
pungent, agreeable taste. It is very nourishing. 

A kind of cheese is also made by boiling the soy 
bean for several hours, wrapping the hot mass in 



Classification of Foods 



87 



bundles of straw, and putting it in a tightly closed 
cellar for twenty-four hours. 

Lentils are not commonly used in this country, but 
they were one of the earliest vegetables to be culti- 
vated in Asia and the Mediterranean countries. They 
are usually imported and may be obtained in the 
markets. They are used like dried peas and are 
fully as nourishing, but the flavor of the lentil is 
pronounced and they are not so agreeable to the 
average person as peas or beans. 



Nuts 



Nuts are classed with the carbo-nitro- 
genous foods, because of the more nearly 
equal proportion of proteins and carbonaceous 
substances. 



TABLE IX 

Nuts 





J& 


*i 


G 


m j_5 


a 


>o-2 


FOOD MATERIALS 


U 41 

v 


38 





,828 


O 


~ag 






p u 


Ph ft 


Oj3 » 


CO 4) 
< ft 


Ph ftO 


Almonds 


4.8 


21.0 


54-90 


17-3 


2.0 


3030 


Brazil nuts 


5-3 


17.0 


66.80 


7.0 


3-9 


3329 


Filberts 


37 


15.6 


65.30 


13.0 


2.4 


3342 


Hickory nuts 


3-7 


154 


67.40 


II.4 


2.1 


3495 


Pecans 


3-o 


I6.7 


71.20 


13-3 


i-5 


3633 


English walnuts 


2.8 


I6.7 


64.40 


14.8 


1.3 


3305 


Chestnuts, fresh 


45-o 


6.2 


540 


42.I 


1-3 


1125 


Walnuts, black 


2-5 


27.6 


56-30 


II.7 


1.9 


3105 


Cocoanut, shredded 


3-5 


6.3 


57-30 


31.6 


1-3 


3125 


Peanuts, roasted 


1.6 


30.5 


49.20 


16.2 


2.5 


3177 



It will be noted, by reference to Table IX that 
nuts contain a much larger proportion of fats and 



88 What to Eat and When 

less starch than the legumes. Chestnuts contain the 
largest amount of starch, and pecans the most fat. 

Peanuts are classed here with nuts because of their 
similar use in the diet. Their comparative richness 
in protein will be noted. 

Nuts are a valuable food, but they should be made 
a part of a meal and may well take the place of meat 
rather than eaten as a dessert, because of the large 
percentage of protein. They are too rich to be eaten 
as a relish at the end of a meal, if one has eaten as 
much other food as the system requires. 

In planning a meal, if the dietary is rich in starches 
and lacking in protein, a side dish of nuts may be 
served. 

Too great stress cannot be laid on the importance 
of the thorough mastication of nuts; otherwise they 
are difficult of digestion. When thoroughly chewed, 
however, they are as easily digested as cereals or 
legumes. If ground fine in a meat grinder or rubbed 
through a sieve, they digest more readily, but this 
grinding does not take the place of the grinding with 
the teeth and the mixture with the saliva. They are 
best chopped for salads, cake, or croquettes. When 
ground the oil extracted makes them pasty and 
not appetizing in appearance for use in salads or 
cake. 

Milk is a perfect food for the infant 
because it contains the elements in proper 
proportions to sustain life and growth, though, alone, 
it is insufficient for the nourishment of healthy adults. 
The adult, in order to get sufficient nutriment, would 
be compelled to take a larger proportion of water 
than necessary, the proportion of water required by 



Classification of Foods 



89 



the system being about sixty-seven per cent., while 
milk contains eighty-seven per cent. 

In many diseases, however, a whole or partial milk 
diet is desirable, especially in any inflammatory con- 
dition of the gastro-intestinal tract. 

TABLE X 
Milk and Milk Products 



FOOD MATERIALS 



Milk 

Skimmed milk 

Buttermilk 

Cream 

Cheese 

Butter 





C! 











u 


ft 


M 

"3 
ft* 


be 

3 
CO 


to 
CO 


86.8 


4.0 


3-7 


4.8 


0.7 


88.0 


4.0 


1.8 


5.4 


0.8 


90.6 


3.8 


1.2 


3.3 


0.6 


66.0 


2.7 


26.7 


2.8 


1.8 


36.8 


33-5 


24-3 




5-4 


6.0 


o-3 


91.0 




2.7 



0.3 



The milk of the cow is not perfectly adapted for 
the young child — it is lacking in the proper proportion 
of sugar, and when fed to the infant it must be modi- 
fied. Mother's milk is not only richer in sugar than 
cow's milk, but it contains about half as much casein. 
The calf needs more albumin than the baby does 
because it grows faster. Human milk is also richer 
in fat. 

An all-milk diet may be followed when it is desir- 
able to gain in weight. Such a diet should be accom- 
panied by exercises for the vital organs and by deep 
breathing, but experiments have shown that healthy 
digestive organs do their work better when a part of 
the food is solid. 



90 What to Eat and When 

A milk and cream diet of about three quarts milk 
and one quart cream with the addition of one to two 
eggs a day will keep up the strength of one in bed, 
but is not sufficient for one who is active. 

In order for an adult to obtain the proper quantity 
of carbohydrates and fat, from an all-milk diet, it is 
necessary for him to drink from four to five quarts of 
milk a day (sixteen to twenty glasses). It is usually 
said that on an all-milk diet an active person requires 
as many quarts as he is feet tall. 

Young babies on mother's milk are almost always 
fat, because of the larger proportion of sugar and fat 
in the mother's milk. 

Reference to Table X shows that the thirteen per 
cent, of solids are about equally divided between fat, 
sugar, and protein. The sugar is lactose. It sup- 
plies heat to the infant before it can exercise its muscles 
vigorously. The protein is casein. 

There is no starch in milk. The digestive ferment, 
which acts on starch, has not developed in the young 
babe and it cannot digest starch. 

The salts promote the growth of bone. 

The fat in milk is in small emulsified droplets within 
a thin albuminous sheath. When allowed to stand in 
a cool place it rises to the top. 

Besides casein, milk contains a certain amount of 
albumin — about one-seventh of the total amount — 
called lact albumin. It maintains the fat in milk in 
emulsified form. 

In young babes the milk is curdled in the stomach, 
or the casein separated from the water and sugar, 
not by hydrochloric acid, but by a ferment in the 
gastric juice, known as rennin. Rennin, or rennet, 
from the stomachs of calves, is used in cheese and 



Classification of Foods 91 

butter factories to coagulate the casein. This with 
other chemicals so hardens the casein that it is used 
in the manufacture of buttons. 

Preserving milk. If milk could be kept free from 
bacteria, it would keep sweet almost indefinitely. At 
the Paris Exposition, milk from several American 
dairies was kept sweet for two weeks, without any 
preservative except cleanliness and a temperature of 
about forty degrees. The United States Bureau of 
Animal Industry states that milk may be kept sweet 
for seven weeks without the use of chemicals. 

The importance of absolute cleanliness in the pre- 
paration and marketing of this important article of 
food is being recognized both by the producer and the 
consumer, and careful inspection has done away with 
many abuses. In the absence of an efficient health 
department, the consumer should ascertain in every 
case how the milk he uses is handled at every stage 
before it reaches him. Care in this regard may safe- 
guard his family from disease and save him many 
dollars. 

The best method for the housewife to follow is to 
keep the milk clean, cool, and away from other foods, 
as milk will absorb a bad odor or flavor from any stale 
food or odorous vegetables, from fresh paint, or other 
substances. 

Milk must never be left exposed in a sick room or 
in a refrigerator unless the waste pipe and the ice 
chamber are kept scrupulously clean. 

Milk Tests. In testing the value of milk, or the 
value of a cow, butter makers and farmers gauge it 
by the amount of butter fat in the milk, while the 
cheese maker tests the milk for the proportion of 
protein (casein). The amount of butter fat depends 



92 What to Eat and When 

on the feed and water, and on the breed. If the total 
nutrient elements fall below twelve per cent., it is 
safe to assume that the milk has been watered. 

In cheese and butter there is no sugar ; it remains in 
the buttermilk and the whey, both of which the farmer 
takes home from the factories to fatten his hogs. 

Pasteurized Milk. In pasteurizing milk the aim is 
to destroy as many of the bacteria as possible without 
causing any chemical changes or without changing 
the flavor. One can pasteurize milk at home by 
placing it in an air-tight bottle, immersing the bottle 
to the neck in hot water, heating the water to 1 67 F. 
for twenty minutes, and then quickly cooling the milk 
to 50 F. by immersing the bottle in cold water. The 
rapid cooling lessens the cooked taste. The best 
dairies pasteurize the milk before it is marketed. 

Sterilized Milk. Milk is sterilized to destroy all 
bacteria, by heating it to 212 F. Sterilized milk 
remains sweet longer than pasteurized milk, but more 
chemical changes are produced and the flavor is 
changed, resembling that of boiled milk. 

Formerly borax, boric acid, salicylic acid, formalin, 
and saltpeter were used to keep the milk sweet, but this 
adulteration is now forbidden by the pure-food laws. 

Malted milk is a dry, soluble food product in powder 
form, derived from malted barley, wheat flour (dex- 
trin), and cow's milk, containing the full amount of 
cream. 

The process of the extraction from the cereals is 
conducted at elevated temperatures so as to allow the 
active agents (enzymes) of the barley malt to effect the 
conversion of the vegetable protein and starches. 
The filtered extract, containing the derivatives of the 
malt, wheat, and the full-cream cow's milk, is then 



Classification of Foods 93 

evaporated to dryness in vacuo, the temperature being 
controlled so as to obviate any alteration of the 
natural constituents of the ingredients and so as to 
preserve their full physiological values. The strictest 
precautions are observed to insure the purity of the 
product. It contains : 

Fats 8.75 

Proteins 16.35 

Dextrin 18.80 

Lactose and Maltose 49-15 

(Total Soluble Carbohydrates) 67.95 

Inorganic Salts 3.86 

Moisture 3.06 

Malted milk is free from germs. The starches and 
sugars are converted in the process of manufacture 
into maltose, dextrin, and lactose. The fats are in an 
absorbable condition, and it contains a high percentage 
of proteins derived from both the milk and the grains, 
as well as a marked percentage of mineral salts. It 
is readily soluble in water and is easily digested. 

The hydrochloric acid of the stomach coagulates 
or curds milk much as it is curded by many fruit and 
vegetable acids, such as those in lemons or tomatoes. 
Thus the milk forms into curds immediately on enter- 
ing the stomach, the casein being at once precipitated 
by the rennin. This is the chief reason why it should 
be drunk slowly, otherwise too large curds will form, 
causing distress from pressure. 

A part of the digestion of the casein is 
performed by pepsin in the stomach and ls , e ^IJf 
a part by the trypsin of the pancreatic juice. 

The larger part of the digestion of the milk sugar 
or lactose, is performed by the pancreatic juice; al- 



94 What to Eat and When 

though it is partly acted on by the saliva. Usually, 
however, the saliva is given little chance to become 
mixed with the milk, unless it is taken slowly and 
mixed with saliva by chewing movements. This is 
one reason why children should be given milk in 
which bread has been broken, rather than a piece of 
bread and a glass of milk. By swallowing the milk 
slowly, smaller curds are formed in the stomach and 
the milk is more thoroughly digested. 

The salts of milk, to a large extent, the water, and 
perhaps a portion of the sugar are absorbed in the 
stomach. 

When the fat (cream) is removed milk digests more 
readily, so that in cases in which the stomach is deli- 
cate, skimmed milk, clabbered milk, or buttermilk are 
often prescribed instead of sweet milk. 

Boiled milk is also more readily digested by some; 
the lactalbumin is separated and rises to the top in a 
crinkty scum. The casein of boiled milk is also more 
readily digested, forming in small flakes in the stomach 
instead of in curds. 

Sterilizing the milk by boiling will prevent the action 
of bacteria in producing fermentation and disordered 
digestion, and, if relished, milk can thus be treated. 
Pasteurized milk is more palatable than boiled milk. 

Milk is often better assimilated if other food is not 
too suddenly cut off. When the diet is radically 
changed the digestive system is apt to show derange- 
ment. Therefore when for any cause an all-milk diet 
is desired, it is unwise to begin it at once, by feeding 
from eighteen to twenty glasses of milk a day. This 
amount may be approximated within a week's time. 
The change in diet should be begun by cutting down 
all meats and legumes and gradually eliminating 



Classification of Foods 95 

starches. In changing from a milk diet to a diet 
including more hearty foods, the transition should 
also be gradual. 

If a milk diet is to be followed and the milk seems 
to disturb the stomach when taken in quantities, one 
may begin by taking it in very small quantities every 
fifteen minutes for the first hour. If one's purpose is 
to gain in flesh the quantity may be increased to a 
glass, and time intervals be lengthened to every hour 
as the stomach becomes accustomed to caring for the 
milk. It should be sipped slowly and thoroughly 
mixed with saliva before being swallowed. The 
mouth should be carefully rinsed with equal parts of 
peroxide of hydrogen and water, or listerine and hot 
sterile water, each time milk is taken. 

Milk, in whatever form it is taken, leaves a coating 
on the tongue and teeth. The heat of the mouth, 
especially if the patient is feverish, quickly causes 
changes which give a disagreeable taste and a chance 
for bacterial action. These bacterial products are 
carried into the stomach and excite digestive changes 
through which fermentation and gas formation appear 
and biliousness may result. This may be avoided if, 
after taking the milk, the mouth is carefully washed 
and, in feverish conditions, the tongue gently scraped 
or swabbed with absorbent cotton dipped in listerine 
or peroxide of hydrogen. Without such cleansing of 
the mouth milk may disagree. 

When from two to three glasses of milk at a meal are 
taken, less solid food is needed, because the required 
nutriment is partially supplied by the milk. One 
reason why milk seems to disagree with many people, 
is because they lose sight of the fact that milk is an 
actual food, as well as a beverage, and they eat the 



96 What to Eat and When 

usual quantity of food in addition to the milk. As 
one pint, or two glasses of milk, contains approximately 
the same amount of nutrition as one-third of a pound 
of beef, the amount of food to be taken in addition 
may be readily calculated. 

The chief reason for the lessened activity of the 
bowels on a milk diet is because the nourishment in 
milk is practically all absorbed — there is very little 
residue and milk gives little rough surface to excite 
peristaltic action and stimulate the walls of the 
intestine to activity. 

The calcium, one of the constituents of milk, tends 
to lessen the peristaltic action of the intestines and 
this is one of the causes of constipation. Fruit and 
coarse bread containing much bran, should be used 
with a milk diet. 

Constipation may also be occasioned by drinking 
milk rapidly. When the hydrochloric acid is very 
active coagulation may take place so quickly as to 
cause hard tough curds to form; these enter the in- 
testine undissolved because the gastric juice can act 
only on the exterior portion; the stomach retains the 
curds in its effort to dissolve them and fermentation 
may occur, with irritation and constipation from ir- 
regular action. In this case the constipating effect 
may be overcome by taking the milk in small sips or 
by the addition of one part of lime-water to six parts 
milk. The lime-water causes the curds to be precipi- 
tated in small flakes. 

Lime-water may be prepared by putting a heaping 
teaspoon of unslaked lime with a quart of boiled or 
distilled water into a corked bottle or Mason jar. 
Shake thoroughly two or three times during the first 
hour; then allow the lime to settle, and after twenty- 



Classification of Foods 97 

four hours pour or siphon off the clear fluid. Be 
careful not to allow the lime to be poured off with the 
water. 

Barley water or oatmeal water added to milk also 
prevents the formation of large curds. 

Milk may also be taken with any variety of gruel 
— oatmeal, sago, arrowroot, or tapioca. 

If there is much mucus in the stomach, mucous 
fermentation may occur in milk because of the lack 
of hydrochloric acid. The partially digested curds 
are tough, stringy, and slimy and the intestinal walls 
find no resistance in the mass. In this case constipa- 
tion may be followed by diarrhea. 

If the stomach is deficient in hydrochloric acid the 
juice of half an orange or a little lemon juice may be 
taken a half hour before the glass of milk. 

Constipation and, later, diarrhea may also result 
when stomach digestion is weak, the curds passing 
through the stomach and intestines undissolved. 

When there is any tendency to torpidity of the 
liver, daily exercise should be directed to the liver, 
stomach, and intestines or milk may cause biliousness, 
because the excess of fat and protein taken over- 
stimulates the liver, causing an excess of bile. The 
bile may enter the stomach and cause nausea and 
vomiting. Constipation results from the disordered 
digestion. This will not often occur if one exercises 
daily and cuts down the quantitv of solid food as the 
amount of liquid is increased. 

A glass of hot Vichy or Hunyadi water taken the 
first thing on rising, and followed by a glass of cool 
water will help to relieve any engorgement of the 
liver. 

In case of biliousness resulting from a milk diet, 



98 What to Eat and When 

abstain from all food for twenty-four hours, cleanse 
the mouth as indicated above, and drink freely of 
water. 

When the liver is a little inactive, milk may be 
diluted with an aerated water or even plain water. 
Daily exercise directed toward securing a greater 
activity of the liver and gall-bladder should be fol- 
lowed. Four tablespoonfuls of soda water, Apolli- 
naris, or carbonic-acid water to the glass may be used. 

As noted in the preceding pages, orange and lemon 
juice will encourage greater activity of the stomach 
and bowels. 

One-third of a glass of hot Vichy water to each glass 
of milk renders it easily digested and most people 
relish it. Unless the liver is very inactive milk taken 
in this way will not constipate and exercise directed 
to the liver, as previously mentioned, will help to 
obviate this condition. 

Skimmed milk, Kumyss, or buttermilk are easily 
digested and are valuable when the digestive system 
is weak. 

The monotony of a milk diet tends to create a 
distaste for milk and the mental revolt may upset 
digestion and result in constipation. This should be 
kept in mind and various ways of modifying the 
milk be used to create variety; mental aversion and 
antagonism should be corrected. 

When its taste is not relished milk may be made 
acceptable and the stomach induced to retain it by 
using a variety of flavors. A drop or two of vanilla, 
a trifle of cinnamon, nutmeg, salt and pepper, choco- 
late, or any other flavor that is liked may be used, 
varying them so as to keep from monotony. 

If milk seems to produce gas in the stomach with 



Classification of Foods 99 

distress and the milk is retained too long in the stomach 
from the interference with its movements caused by 
the gas, a teaspoonful of malt extract may be added 
to each glass of milk. If the malt extract is not at 
hand, four teaspoonfuls of malted milk to each glass 
may be used. 

Equal parts of cream and hot water to which has 
been added a third of a teaspoon of soda may be used, 
for the same purpose. 

If milk disagrees because of an excess of hydro- 
chloric acid and the formation of hard curds, a salt- 
spoon of salt or bicarbonate of soda may be used, or 
one part of lime-water to six parts of milk. 

When milk seems to disagree because digestion is 
somewhat slow and the milk does not offer enough 
bulk to excite peristaltic action, it remains too long 
in the stomach and fermentation occurs. A slice of 
bread, a couple of crackers, a piece of zweiback, a 
tablespoonful of Nestle's or Mellin's food or of arrow- 
root gruel added to each glass, or eaten with the milk, 
will give it more body and prevent the formation of 
large curds. 

When the stomach is excessively weak because of 
a lack of the digestive juices and a consequent incom- 
plete action of the stomach, only predigested milk 
should be taken until the stomach has been brought 
to a normal tone. Pepsin or pancreatin may be 
used for the partial digestion. Milk so predigested 
must be freshly prepared each time it is used or must 
be kept on ice until used. The stomach will find 
practically no difficulty in assimilating milk thus 
prepared, and constipation will be avoided. 

It must be remembered that milk must be sipped slowly 
and be well mixed with saliva before it is swallowed. 



ioo What to Eat and When 

Milk can be soured and taken separated as a varia- 
tion, the curds and whey being relished by many when 
properly prepared. A little sugar and cinnamon or 
nutmeg sprinkled on curds or mixed with the whey 
make a palatable mixture. Buttermilk or kumyss 
offer still other variations. 

With all these means of varying the taste, appear- 
ance, or condition of milk it is hardly possible that 
some way cannot be found whereby milk may be 
taken and be well borne by the stomach and the full 
benefits from its use be derived. 

Cheese ^^ s 1S ^ e case * n (protein) which has 

been separated from milk by the action of 
rennet. It is highly nutritious and many varieties 
are on the market. In Europe it is largely used to 
take the place of meat. Cheese contains almost as 
much again protein as is contained in the same quan- 
tity of meat. 

In this country more highly flavored cheeses are in 
demand, and when eaten in moderate quantities they 
aid digestion. They are highly concentrated food 
and but a small quantity should be eaten at a meal, 
particularly if meat has constituted a part of the meal. 

The cheeses poor in fat are more difficult to digest 
as they are harder and not so easily masticated. 

Contrary to the prevalent idea, a properly made 
Welsh rarebit is more easily digested than uncooked 
cheese. 

One should use judgment, in eating any highly 
concentrated food, not to eat too large a quantity. 

Smierkase, or cottage cheese, is coagulated casein. 
It contains thirty-three per cent, of protein, twenty- 
four per cent, of fat, and five per cent, of salts. 



Classification of Foods 101 

The thickening of the milk, or the coagulation of 
the casein, is like that produced by lactic acid. 

Skimmed milk, as shown by the table, contains 
the same amount of protein as fresh milk, but more 
sugar and more ash, the difference consisting almost 
entirely of less fat, which has been removed in the 
cream. 

Buttermilk. There is less fat, protein, sugar, or ash 
in buttermilk than in skimmed milk; it is therefore 
less nourishing, but it requires less digestive effort. 
The sugar has partially fermented and the lactic acid 
is freed. It is the free lactic acid which gives the 
pungent taste. 

Buttermilk made by lactone or Bulgarian tablets 
and fresh milk is as nourishing and as desirable as 
that made in the process of butter making, and it has 
the advantage of being fresh. When the whole milk 
is used it, of course, contains the same amount of fat, 
protein, sugar, and ash as the milk. It is of value 
in cases of poor digestion of protein and fat, and in 
chronic stomach trouble. It has been claimed that 
the bacilli in buttermilk made from the Bulgarian 
tablets prevent putrefaction in the large intestine. 
This is disputed, however. 

Clabbered Milk. The casein in clabbered milk 
coagulates and if kept in a hot place the coagula- 
tion continues until the water, sugar, and salts are 
separated. Clabbered or loppered milk is whole- 
some. It may be sweetened or salted and flavored 
to taste. 

Whey is the watery portion of milk from which the 
casein has been removed in the process of making 
cheese. It is a palatable drink and may be flavored 
with a little nutmeg and sugar or salt. Invalids 



102 What to Eat and When 

usually relish it. Beef tea or egg yolk may be added 
to it. 

Milk Sugar. Sugar made from milk is now a com- 
mercial product; it is evaporated and transformed 
into a fine powder. This powder is used by physi- 
cians and druggists in compounding powders, pills, 
tablets, etc. 

Junket. The tablets used in making junket are 
the essence of rennet. Milk coagulated by rennin 
has not the sour taste of milk coagulated by acid. 
It is an admirable article of diet in many weakened 
conditions of the digestive tract. 

Condensed Milk is made by evaporating the water 
until it is reduced to about sixty-one per cent. It is 
then hermetically sealed. It is convenient for use 
whenever fresh milk cannot be obtained, but the 
process of evaporation changes its flavor so that few 
care for it as a drink. It may be substituted for 
cream in coffee, and diluted with three times its volume 
in water the proportions are again the same as before 
the water was evaporated. 



CHAPTER IV 



BEVERAGES 



BEVERAGES are used primarily to relieve thirst; 
they may also contain food elements; they may 
be used for their effect in heat and cold, for their 
flavor, which helps to increase the appetite, or for 
their stimulating properties. 

They are used to aid digestion and the elimination 
of waste, to promote sweating, to soothe inflamed 
air passages or digestive membranes. They furnish 
extra nutrition, stimulate nerve action, quench thirst 
in fevers, warm the body when it is cold or cool it 
when it is hot. They are used in health or disease, 
from the snows of the arctics to the palms of the tropics. 
They may be alkaline or acid, mineral, medicated or 
mucilaginous, effervescing or plain. The question of 
their utility and preparation is important in any 
discussion of foods and food products, though in 
themselves they are not foods. 

The people of all races seemingly crave a stimulant, 
after bodily or mental exertion, in fatigue, as a 
"bracer" in prolonged effort, as a promoter of 
sociability, or as an offering of hospitality. These 
stimulants are either alcoholic or non-alcoholic. 

It is a notable fact that no tribe is so remote that 
it does not possess some form of beverage which may 

103 



104 What to Eat and When 

be offered to friends or used to promote feelings of 
conviviality; or it may be used to stir up rage if 
onslaughts against neighboring tribes are contem- 
plated. The craving is universal and as old as the 
race. 

Those who decry this craving when it takes the 
form of alcohol are often themselves addicted to ex- 
cessive drinking of non-alcoholic stimulants. 

T Tea is not a food — it is a stimulant. It 

is made by steeping the leaves of a shrub, 
called Thea, which grows in the tropical regions of 
Asia and adjacent islands. 

Green tea differs from black in the mode of its 
preparation. In green tea the leaves are steamed 
before they are dried. 

The amount of tannin in green tea is greater than 
in black, hence green tea is regarded as not so whole- 
some a drink as black tea. 

The young tender leaves are more delicate of flavor. 

Varieties of plants differ both in the amount of 
tannin and the delicacy of flavor. 

Tea should never be boiled or allowed to stand 
longer than a few minutes ; standing causes the tannin 
to be extracted from the leaves, and this tannin dis- 
turbs digestion. It is the tannin extracted from the 
bark of trees which toughens animal skins into leather. 

The best way to make tea is to pour on boiling 
water and serve within five minutes. 

Because of the uncertainty as to the length of time 
tea may be allowed to steep in hotel kitchens or res- 
taurants, it is a wise custom to have a ball of tea 
and a pot of hot water served that the guest may 
make the tea at the table. 



Beverages 105 

Tea is diuretic, stimulating the action of the kid- 
neys. Through its stimulant action it relieves fatigue 
and has been found especially useful in Arctic explora- 
tions and for soldiers on long marches. 

When taken hot it will often relieve sick headache. 
When taken on an empty stomach, after a long fa- 
tiguing tramp or a prolonged "shopping" excursion, 
its refreshing effect may be felt for an hour or two. 

The ease of its preparation and the quickness of its 
effect tends to produce the ' ' tea habit. ' ' When drunk 
to excess with meals, it causes the precipitation of the 
ferments in the digestive juices, retards digestion, and 
may cause constipation, particularly if taken after 
long infusion. 

Strong tea has an overstimulating effect on the 
nervous system which reacts, producing depression 
and restlessness ; this may lead to insomnia, muscular 
twitchings, and palpitation of the heart. 

Habitual users often take from ten to twenty cups 
of strong tea daily; in these the evil effects of the tea 
habit are easily noted. 

Americans, or any people whose nerves are highly 
stimulated, from the stress of life, or from habitual 
nerve tension, should particularly avoid all stimulating 
beverages. 

Poor tea, because of the greater amount of tannin 
it contains, produces its ill effects more quickly. 
From overstimulation of the nervous system, poor 
tea, long stewed, has been held to be a contributing 
factor in insanity. 

Tea should be avoided by the dyspeptic, by those 
of constipated and flatulent habit, or by the anemic. 

Tannin coagulates the albumin in milk or cream 
and the addition of these to tea renders it more in- 



106 What to Eat and When 

digestible; plain or with lemon juice it may be well 
borne by those with whom it disagrees when used 
with cream or sugar. 

Thein, the active principle in tea, is chemically 
identical with caffein in coffee. 

Coffee Coffee is prepared from the seeds of the 

coffee tree. The best known brands come 
from the Island of Java, Mocha, Rio de Janeiro, and 
Mexico. 

Coffee, like tea, is not a food, it is a stimulant. 

The active principle is caffein. This is an alkaloid 
and is a strong stimulant to the central nervous 
system. It quickens the heart action, and the stimu- 
lating effect is so apparent with many, that they can- 
not sleep for several hours after drinking it. Others 
drink coffee to quicken mental activity and to keep 
them awake. 

It must be borne in mind, however, that there is 
a reactionary effect from all stimulants, and while 
coffee is not intoxicating, as alcohol, it has a similar 
effect on the nerves and heart. 

Coffee has the redeeming feature of having a pleas- 
ing aroma, which, because of the effect on the mind, 
may incite the flow of gastric juice. Despite the fact 
that no morning beverage has quite the same pleasing 
aroma, or pungency, ordinarily one is much better 
without it. 

Coffee stimulates the action of the heart and for 
this reason it is used in collapse to restore heart 
action. 

It removes the sense of fatigue and is thus beneficial 
in some cases, as in the army, when long marches are 
necessary. 



Beverages 107 

It is valuable as an antidote in opium poisoning or 
in cases of alcoholism. 

It is given to those addicted to liquor, as a milder 
stimulant when they are recovering from a spell of 
intoxication. 

The only use of coffee as a food is that its pleasant 
aroma stimulates the flow of gastric juice. 

Strong coffee, particularly that which has been 
boiled for a long time, retards digestion, and, if much 
is drunk, it will produce the same symptoms of over 
stimulation of the nervous system as are manifest 
in the tea habit. Heartburn, constipation, dyspepsia, 
and insomnia may result. 

Sometimes the habit is manifested by excessive eat- 
ing of the coffee bean. Such users show marked 
symptoms of nervousness; they are usually thin and 
their faces are drawn and anxious. 

Each person must decide for himself whether or not 
coffee or tea is injurious to him and cease the habit 
if he finds it is interfering with the proper function- 
ing of the system, remembering always that the pur- 
pose of food is to resupply body waste and produce 
heat and energy. 

One who knows that coffee disturbs his digestion, 
and yet cannot break himself from the habit of drink- 
ing it, should have sympathy for the one who is 
addicted to liquor and finds it difficult to break the 
habit of depending on this so-called stimulant. 

Cereal Coffee has been discussed under the heading 
"Cereals." 

" Crust' ' coffee is made by pouring boiling water 
on "caramelized" bread or bread deeply toasted, 
allowing it to stand ten minutes, then pouring off 
the liquid, which may be sweetened to taste or mixed 



io8 What to Eat and When 

with cream or milk. It is also made by using crusts 
of bread which have been dried in the oven without 
being allowed to brown. 

Cocoa and Chocolate are prepared from 
Cocoa and , , , 

„. . . the cocoa bean. 
Chocolate 

Cocoa is from the shell of the bean and 

chocolate from the kernel. As shown by Table VII, 
they are more nutritious than the other beverages. 

Cocoa butter is the fat of the cocoa bean. It has 
a pleasant odor and does not easily become rancid. 
Its nutritive value depends on its fat. 

Most of the fat has been removed from the cocoa 
made for the use of invalids, hence the nutritive value 
of this cocoa is lessened. The milk and sugar used 
in its preparation constitute the most of its nourish- 
ment; the cocoa simply gives a flavor. 

Part of the value of chocolate is in the sugar used 
with it. If well prepared it is digested with ease and 
forms a nutritious article of diet. The habit of using 
large amounts of chocolate in candy, or as a beverage, 
disorders the system because of the gastric disturb- 
ances produced by the excess of sugar. 

When food is not easily obtained, compressed cakes 
of chocolate may be carried, as in traveling, for a 
temporary food supply. 

Chocolate, as sugar, in moderation, constitutes a 
good food for the growing child. 

The active principle in cocoa and chocolate is theo- 
bromin and, though milder, is similar to caffein in its 
stimulating effect on the nervous system. 

, Lemonade and other fruit drinks, parti- 

cularly those made from the citrus fruits, 
slake the thirst more quickly than most drinks. 



Beverages 109 

All fruit drinks are diuretic, and, whenever the action 
of the kidneys is sluggish, they are especially desirable. 

These are made by forcing carbon dioxid, 
under pressure, into the bottle. As soon e «JJ^| 
as the cork is removed the escape of the 
gas causes effervescence. These drinks are of no 
special advantage, other than that they slake the 
thirst, because the amount of salts of various minerals 
they contain is usually small. 

When taken in excess they cause flatulence and 
may lead to gastric disturbances. The indiscriminate 
habit of young people drinking effervescing waters 
at soda fountains should be discouraged. 

These waters added to milk render it more easily 
digested. 

There is no beverage nor concoction Water 

devised by man equal to water. It is to 
be deplored that it is not used as freely as Nature 
demands — from eight to ten glasses a day. 

The value of water as a food and as an aid to diges- 
tion is discussed on page 26. 

CONDIMENTS 

Condiments are not foods. They have no nutri- 
tion in themselves, but by their flavor they stimulate 
the nerves of taste, rendering the food more appetizing 
and help to make the diet more varied. 

They are relishes and are to be employed in this 
manner judiciously, and not used generally in the diet. 

Some strong condiments, as cayenne pepper, are 
of use in dyspeptic conditions to stimulate the gastric 
mucous membrane. 



no What to Eat and When 

They are of value in the dietary of the invalid 
whose appetite must be stimulated and careful varia- 
tions in flavoring will aid in varying a diet which 
otherwise would be monotonous, but the excessive 
use of condiments, particularly the various peppers, 
salt, horseradish, ginger, vinegar, and spices, as in- 
dulged by many, so overstimulates the gastric and 
intestinal membranes, as to cause catarrhal disease 
and dyspepsia. They tend to weaken digestion by 
calling for an undue secretion of digestive juices, 
which, if prolonged, tires out the glands. 

The use of salts is discussed on pages 34-37. 

A reasonable amount of condiments such as pepper, 
salt, nutmeg, cloves, allspice, sage, thyme, ginger, 
mustard, cinnamon, mace, horseradish, vanilla, dill, 
etc., may be used as appetizers, because the pleasing 
thought of them may incite the flow of gastric juice; 
but they should not be used to excess. 

The taste is undoubtedly a cultivated one, and 
should not be encouraged in children. The child 
rarely cares for condiments and it is better that he 
continue to relish his food in its natural flavor. 

If beef tea, which so soon becomes distasteful to 
the sick, is flavored with different savory or aromatic 
substances, as parsley, sage, or mint, it is taken with 
greater relish. 

Mustard, so commonly used with cold ham or other 
meat and in salad dressing, is sometimes of benefit 
in stimulating the appetite, but when used in large 
quantities, or continuously, it may irritate the stomach. 
This irritant quality may be used to advantage, when 
it is deemed necessary, as a counter-irritant on the 
skin, as in the well-known mustard plaster. A tea- 
spoonful of mustard to a pint of lukewarm water is 



Beverages in 

an effectual emetic in cases in which it is necessary 
or advisable to empty the stomach. 

Capers, the flower buds of a bush grown in the 
East, are put up in vinegar and used in sauces for 
mutton. 

Cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves are useful in flavoring 
foods; they take the flat taste from hot water and 
impart a pleasant spiciness. Many can take milk 
when flavored, and the slight amount necessary is in 
no way injurious. 

Preserved ginger is of value for flavoring cereal foods 
and gruels for invalids. 

Vinegar, used in excess, reduces the alkalinity of 
the blood and aids in the destruction of red blood 
corpuscles. It may thus produce anemia when used 
in excess. 

The acetic acid contained in cider vinegar aids the 
softening of the muscle fiber of meat and thus facili- 
tates its digestion. Because of its preservative quali- 
ties it is used in pickling vegetables and various kinds 
of fish. 

Vinegars made from grapes or other fruits are whole- 
some. Flavored vinegars, as tarragon, from the 
herb of the same name, are useful as appetizers. 

Vinegars artificially made from commercial acids 
are sometimes injurious. 

Tomato Catsup, Worcestershire, and Tabasco sauces 
are not harmful if used moderately and with due regard 
to enhancing not destroying the flavor of the food 
with which they are used. 

PRESERVATION OF FOODS 

This subject is of ever-growing importance. The 
study of the preservation of foods has added much to 



H2 What to Eat and When 

the store of human knowledge. By this means it is 
possible for those living in districts remote from the 
supply, those who cannot afford to buy them fresh, 
and those who have no cellars in which to store them, 
to have vegetables and fruits at all seasons of the year. 

Nutritious foods can be prepared in such small 
bulk and of such excellent keeping quality that ex- 
plorers, whether to the arctics or the tropics, can 
be kept in first-class physical condition, enabled to 
withstand fatigue, and be removed to long distances 
from the base of supplies without great hardship. 

The decomposition of food is occasioned by bacte- 
rial action. Air is necessary to the growth of bacte- 
ria. If the air is excluded the ordinary bacteria are 
prevented from exerting their deleterious action. 

Heat, as in canning, prevents the formation of 
bacterial products. 

Cold, in refrigeration, by inhibiting bacterial activity 
is also an excellent preservative. 

Other methods in use are smoking, salting, drying, 
sterilizing, various antiseptics, and the exclusion of 
the air, as in coating eggs or meat for transportation 
to other countries. 

Eggs are preserved for a long period by excluding 
the air, which otherwise penetrates the shell. A solu- 
tion of water glass (silicate of sodium), dry oats or 
salt are used for this purpose. 

All food intended for preservation should be kept 
in a clean, cool, dry, dark place. 

Drying, cooking, and sealing from the air will 
preserve some meats and fruits, while others require 
such preservatives as sugar, vinegar, and salt. The 
preservative in cider vinegar is acetic acid, in wine 
vinegar tartaric acid. 



Beverages 113 

All preservatives which are actual foods, such as 
sugar, salt, and vinegar, are to be recommended, but 
the use of antiseptic preservatives, such as salicylic 
acid, formaldehyd, boracic acid, alum, sulphur, and 
benzoate of soda, all of which have been used by 
many canning merchants, is fraught with danger. 
By the efforts of the United States Department of 
Agriculture the use of such preservatives has been 
largely done away with by the most reliable packers 
and canners. However, unscrupulous dealers may 
use this means of disguising fruits and vegetables not 
in good condition. 

There can be no doubt, that, whenever possible, 
the best method is for the housewife to preserve her 
own food by drying, canning, preserving, and pickling, 
with fruits and vegetables which she knows are fresh. 
This, however, is not always practicable. 

Since economy in food lies in obtaining the greatest 
amount of nutriment for the least money, the prepara- 
tion of simple foods in the home, with care that no 
more is furnished for consumption than the system 
requires, is the truest economy. 

More brands of prepared food are not so much 
needed as purity of elements in their natural state. 

In the effort to emphasize the importance of pure 
food in amount and quality, pure air and pure water 
must not be overlooked. Much infection is carried by 
these two elements. 

POISONING FROM FOOD 

Owing to the careful inspection given to various 
preparations of foods and the education of the people 
on the dangers attending the eating of underripe, 
overripe, or fermenting fruits and vegetables, or de- 



ii4 What to Eat and When 

composing canned meats or other foods, cases of 
poisoning from food are not so numerous as formerly. 

One still reads, however, of illnesses and even fatali- 
ties in those who have, at some gathering, partaken 
of potted or canned meats, or ice-cream made from 
impure milk. 

Imperfect sterilization allows the micro-organisms, 
everywhere present in the atmosphere, to multiply 
and produce their toxins. 

Any food contained in a can which shows a suspi- 
cious bulging in top or sides (not a dent caused by 
handling) should be unhesitatingly rejected, for fer- 
mentation has developed gases, which, in trying to 
escape, have caused the bulging. Though the practice 
is less common than formerly, some grocers offer 
these bulging cans for sale at less prices and they are 
thus purchased by those who look for bargains in 
foods instead of for quality. 

Sometimes the foods have not advanced to a stage 
in which the poisonous products are manifested; but 
in the intestinal canal the germs contained in these 
foods manufacture toxins which are readily absorbed 
and produce the severe disturbances noted in cases 
of ptomain poisoning. 

The liver, which has been styled the "watchdog of 
the body," has a special power to destroy many of 
the toxins contained in the food material passing 
through it, and it is due to this fact that many dele- 
terious substances, taken with the food, are neutral- 
ized and their poisons rendered harmless to the system. 
When the liver is disordered, this important function 
may be hindered, or cease to be active. Therefore, 
the importance may be readily seen of keeping the 
liver in a vigorous condition by means of exercises 



Beverages 115 

which will send an active circulation through it and 
keep the nerves controlling it in perfect functioning 
order. 

Ptomain poisoning results most often from tainted 
meat, milk, and fish. Putrefactive processes may have 
begun in meat, which is thus rendered "high," but 
if it is thoroughly cooked the poisons may be made 
inert. Many enjoy the flavor of such meat. The 
Eskimos, as is well known, will cache a seal or other 
animal against a time when food is less plentiful and 
after months, perhaps, will eat it with relish and with- 
out harm, though it cannot be touched by people with 
less hearty appetites. Old eggs, eaten as a luxury by 
the Chinese, and the fermented fish used by other 
races are familiar examples of tainted foods. 

The sale of "bob" veal, or the flesh of very young 
calves, has been prohibited because in many people 
its ready decomposition causes active diarrhea. 

The process of smoking various meats affects mate- 
rially only the outside portion, the inner may furnish 
a suitable bed for the development of germs. Great 
care should be exercised and thorough inspection 
made of any meat which is eaten raw, as dried beef, 
or any pork product. 

Ice-cream, as made in the home, is usually innocuous, 
but when it is made in factories, unless care is exercised 
to keep containers clean and sterilized, the cream or 
milk may become infected from careless handling, 
either before or after it reaches the factory — parti- 
cularly in warm weather. Toxins which cause serious 
and often fatal poisoning develop. Many such cases 
have resulted from the free eating of infected ice- 
cream at picnics or other social gatherings. 

One should guard against overripe cheese, though 



n6 What to Eat and When 

cheese of any kind acts as a poison with some people. 
Cases of severe intestinal disturbance may occur in 
those who are unable to eat certain articles of food, 
as strawberries, lobsters, or oysters; these attacks 
should be carefully distinguished from cases of true 
poisoning. 

Sometimes, however, particularly in the case of fish 
or oysters which have been frozen, unless they are 
eaten immediately after they have been thawed, 
toxins develop which cause severe constitutional 
disturbance, particularly of the nervous system. 
These toxins do not seem to affect the gastro-intestinal 
tract so markedly. Infected shellfish, particularly 
mussels, have caused death in two hours by their 
effect on the nervous system. 

Many fish after being smoked are eaten raw, and 
if the ptomains have begun to develop, poisoning 
follows. 

Care must be taken in purchasing fish for the table 
that the flesh is firm and the odor absolutely without 
taint. 

Meat or fish may become toxic to the system through 
substances eaten by the animal or by its own physical 
condition at the time it is killed. Fish and oysters, 
therefore, are not eaten during the spawning season. 

Cow's milk may be made obnoxious by substances 
on which the cow feeds. Wild garlic when eaten by 
the cow imparts a nauseous taste to the milk. 

The flesh from diseased animals slaughtered and 
sold for food has occasioned violent sickness. Govern- 
ment inspection, however, has greatly lessened the 
dangers from this source. 

Unripe or overripe vegetables and fruit may occa- 
sion severe vomiting and diarrhea. 



Beverages 117 

Moldy flour contains a substance which may cause 
poisoning. 

Rye may have a parasite fungus called ergot and if 
flour is made from rye contaminated with this growth, 
a form of poisoning called "ergotism" may result. 
It takes some time and a prolonged use of the flour 
to cause untoward symptoms. 

Pellagra, which has been giving the southern states 
so much trouble, was thought to be caused by the use 
of spoiled corn meal. It is now thought to be due to 
the disturbed nutrition following too monotonous 
and unbalanced a diet. The excessive use of corn- 
meal breads with their heating qualities and the irri- 
tation of the intestinal canal may be an accessory 
factor. 

A food which is so universally used as milk should 
be surrounded with every safeguard possible by rigid 
inspection from producer to consumer, as many in- 
fective epidemics have been traced directly to a care- 
less or infected handler of this product. Tuberculosis 
and typhoid fever germs, diphtheria and scarlet fever 
may all be communicated by this means. Live 
typhoid bacilli have been found in acid buttermilk. 
Infected water used in washing the cans will infect 
the milk. 

Other poisoning may occur by the tin or lead in the 
inside of cans being dissolved off by the acids in fruits 
or vegetables. This is more likely to occur when the 
cans of fruit have been kept for a long time. House- 
keepers, who use tin cans, should not put up more 
fruit than will supply the family for the season. 

Tomatoes, asparagus, strawberries, and apricots 
are especially liable to dissolve the tin from the can. 

Food should be emptied from the can as soon as it 



n8 What to Eat and When 

is opened, as the action of the air hastens deterioration. 
No cooked fruit should be allowed to stand in a tin 
saucepan or other vessel. It should be emptied as 
soon as the cooking process is complete. 

When a can of fruit, vegetables, or meat is opened, 
if the interior of the can is even partially black, it is 
safe to reject the contents. The tin in the food will 
be absorbed in the intestinal tract and may cause 
severe disturbance. 

Large canners of fruit and vegetables, of the better 
quality, are now coating the inside of the can with 
an insoluble varnish which prevents the acids from 
acting on the tin. 

The best canners are exceedingly careful and every- 
thing in their factories is scrupulously clean. 

THE ADULTERATION OF FOOD 

Laws against food adulteration have been enacted, 
but unscrupulous manufacturers find ways to evade 
them. On account of these laws, however, the prac- 
tice is less general and manufacturers are beginning 
to take pride in putting up goods that pass the strict- 
est inspection. The people, also, are being aroused, 
through the efforts of the pure-food propagandists, 
to the ill effects of adulterated foods both on the body 
and the pocketbook and are increasingly demanding 
that the foods they buy shall be pure and wholesome. 

To lessen the cost of production, many foods are 
mixed with various substances before being marketed 
in order to increase the profits of the manufacturer 
or dealer. The contained substance may not be 
deleterious to health, but it may lessen the value of 
the article as a food. 

Among foods which may be so adulterated are 



Beverages 1 19 

jellies, jams and marmalades, catsups and pickles of 
all varieties, baking powder, butter, spices, coffee, 
corn-starch, mincemeat, vinegar, syrups, sugar, honey, 
lard, and flour. 

Various adulterants which are used are: wood 
alcohol (a poison) in flavoring extracts ; vinegar made 
from various acids and colored to imitate cider vinegar ; 
rice flour and wheat flour used in ground spices; 
kaolin and coloring matter used in candies; paraffin 
in gum drops; glucose artificially flavored as maple 
syrup; cotton-seed oil sold as olive oil; starch and 
sugar in powdered cocoa and in chocolate; chicory, 
sugar, and pea meal in ground coffee; artificial coffee 
beans made of starch, molasses, and chicory; alum and 
ammonia in baking powders; artificial coloring of 
canned peas, beans, and catsups, butter, cheese, milk, 
and cream. 

It must be said, in justice, however, that house- 
wives are responsible for many of these productions. 
Dealers who would be glad to sell only pure articles 
say that "the trade won't have them." 

Many insist on a highly colored cheese, thinking 
that the color denotes greater richness, whereas a little 
reasoning would show them that the richest old cheeses 
are pale in color, the deeper color of the cheese being 
due to the addition of coloring matter to the curd. 
While the coloring matter is not deleterious, the color 
is no evidence of richness. 

Highly colored green pickles, beans, and peas, should 
not be used. Pickles which are hard and crisp are 
usually made so by alum. 

Brilliant red catsup is in demand, though the pure 
variety is known by its darker and not so attractive 
hue. 



120 What to Eat and When 

High coloring in any canned fruit or vegetable is 
usually an indication that dye stuffs have been used 
to produce it. 

Fruit jams which are of nondescript color or pale 
when pure are colored artificially because the ordinary 
purchaser demands a pretty product. 

Through the vigilance of the food inspectors of the 
boards of health, and because of some vigorous prose- 
cutions, the adulteration of the people's food is, how- 
ever, not so easy and profitable an occupation as 
formerly. 

The Bulletins of the Department of Agriculture 
furnish a mine of wealth in the gaining of knowledge 
of various foods and their preparation, and may be 
had free on application to this Department at Wash- 
ington. 

HEAT AND ENERGY 

The second use of foods, as mentioned before, is 
to furnish heat and energy for the work of the body. 
Heat and energy are produced automatically by the 
action of the heart, the movement of the lungs in 
breathing, and by muscular activity through the di- 
gestion, absorption, and assimilation of food elements, 
and through the activity in tearing down and elimi- 
nating waste. They are produced consciously by 
muscular activity in exercise. 

Just as any engine requires fuel, water, and air to 
create the force necessary to run the machinery, so 
does the human engine require fuel, air, and water. 

The fuel for an engine consists of coal, wood, or oil. 
As these are brought in combination with oxygen, 
combustion or oxidation takes place, liberating heat 
and setting the engine in motion. 



Beverages 121 

The amount of energy or force given off by an 
engine should exactly equal the amount of latent 
energy provided in the fuel. Much of this energy is 
commercially lost, since much of the latent force in 
fuel is not fully liberated, some passing off in the 
smoke, while some may remain in the cinders. 

The amount of heat and energy generated by the 
body equals the amount of latent energy released by 
the burning of food material during oxidation. 

The carbohydrates and fats constitute the most of 
the fuel. 

The body cells are constantly surrounded by the 
lymph which contains the food material — the protein, 
the carbohydrate, and the fat. 

The lymph carries all of the food elements, there- 
fore the protein, the fat, and the carbohydrate reach 
the tissues at the same time. If the fat and carbo- 
hydrate predominate, their excess serves to keep a 
portion of the protein away from the cells. The cells 
can use carbohydrate more easily than fat, so the 
surplus amount of carbohydrate is first used to pro- 
duce energy. This spares the protein which is held 
in reserve for tissue repair, and the fat, being least 
readily used, is stored. 

When the carbohydrates and fats are not supplied, 
or when the system fails for any reason to appropriate 
those eaten to its use, the protein is used for heat and 
energy instead of being used for tissue building. If 
the demand, either in mental or physical energy, 
exceeds the daily supply for long, the body becomes 
lean. 

In order, therefore, to maintain a perfect equi- 
librium the supply of protein, carbohydrate, and fat 
should bear the proper relation, any excess at one 



122 What to Eat and When 

time being equalized at another. If an overhearty 
meal is eaten the next should be light. 

Fat is harder to burn than the starches and sugars 
so that they are acted on first as an economy of effort, 
and the fat is held in reserve until the carbohydrates 
are exhausted. 

If one is cold, the quickest way to get warm is to gen- 
erate more heat within by "turning on the draught," 
or, in other words, by breathing in more oxygen. If 
cold, one should depend more on the oxygen within 
than on extra clothing. So many people put on more 
clothing to conserve the body heat and forget to 
generate more heat by arousing the fires within. 
This is like covering a dying fire, instead of turning 
on the draught to create more combustion. 

The carbon in the body is burned by being brought 
into contact with oxygen in the blood through exercise 
and full breathing, just as a fire is fanned to flame by 
bringing oxygen in contact with the fuel, by means of 
a draught of air. Keep all air away from a fire and 
it "dies out," it has exhausted the oxygen and no 
heat is produced; keep all air from within the body, 
by cessation of breathing, and it also dies. 

A room is heated with difficulty if the air in it does 
not contain sufficient oxygen. Just so the body which 
is not constantly supplied with pure air generates 
very little heat. The effect of oxygen in the creation 
of heat is practically demonstrated by voluntary, 
rapid, deep breathing, completely filling the lungs with 
air, while out in the cold. The body will become 
quickly warmed on the coldest day by this practice. 

Ten to twelve deep breaths in succession "turn on 
the draught" inside and create combustion (heat), 
just as opening the draught to a stove by causing 



Beverages 123 

more air to circulate within it increases combustion 
or heat. 

Remember that heat is the result of combustion — 
the more rapid the combustion in the body, caused 
by oxygen breathed in through the lungs, the greater 
the heat. 

Just as much heat is created when fat is burned 
in the body as when it is burned outside of the body. 

The heat from "burning" wood is produced by the 
union of the oxygen from the air with hydrogen and 
carbon, forming carbon dioxid and water. 

The light in the burning of wood is caused by the 
rapid combustion. Combustion occurs within the 
body more slowly, hence no light is produced. 

The exact process by which the potential energy 
latent in food is converted into heat and energy is 
not known. It is partly released during the digestive 
process, through the chemical action produced when 
the elements of the food come into contact with oxy- 
gen and with the digestive juices. This combustion 
gives to the digestive organs the necessary warmth 
to enable them to do effective work. A certain 
amount of heat is necessary for the chemical changes, 
and digestive juices flow more freely when the body 
is warm. Heat is necessary, also, to aid the peristaltic 
movements of the digestive organs. 

It has been estimated that about one-sixth of the 
heat liberated evaporates through the skin, the lungs, 
and the excreta, while five-sixths is required to main- 
tain the body heat. 

If the digestive forces are not working perfectly 
and if the food is not properly prepared, some of the 
fuel is not utilized. But, in normal conditions, if 
the food is supplied in proportion to the energy re- 



124 What to Eat and When 

quired, the heat and energy given off should exactly 
equal the latent heat and energy consumed. If more 
food is taken than is necessary to produce heat and 
energy, the excess of material is stored and if the 
excess continues the bodily machinery may be clogged. 
The relief lies in consuming the excess through exer- 
cise. More oxygen is required to put the excess in 
condition for use, and the extra amount of oxygen 
is gained by means of the deep breathing occasioned 
by exercise. 

It is to be noted, also, that no force within the body 
is lost. In the very process of the removal of waste, 
heat and energy are created, so that the parts no 
longer needed are utilized by the system, while they 
are being removed from it. Here is a lesson in 
economy of force. 

A small portion of the heat of the body is gained 
from the sun or from artificial heat, but by far the 
greater part is generated within the body. 

As mentioned before, the fuel for the body consists 
of fats, starches, and sugars, which, in combination 
with oxygen, create force. 

From the foregoing, it follows that the fuel value 
of any food depends on the amount of fats, starches, 
and sugars it contains. 

The chemical combination of oxygen with food 
elements and with the body tissue is known as oxida- 
tion. It is this chemical action of the oxygen on the 
food and on the tissues which produces heat and 
energy, either in muscle, gland, or nerve. This energy, 
in the muscle, expresses itself in movement; in the 
gland, in chemical action, and in the nervous system, 
by activity of brain or nerve centers. The nervous 
energy is closely allied to electrical force. 



Beverages 125 

Nature provides for a reserve of heat and energy, 
above the immediate needs, by storing a supply of 
heat-producing material which is utilized whenever 
the daily supply is insufficient or is lacking. Many 
hibernating animals store up sufficient fat in summer 
to provide heat for the entire winter. This fat would 
not last throughout the winter, however, were the 
animal active. Many individuals carry sufficient 
fat to supply all of their needs for months, even 
though all fat-building elements were omitted from 
the diet. 

The fact that more oxygen is required for combus- 
tion of fat than of starches and sugars is important 
for those who wish to call on the fats stored within 
the body for daily heat and energy and thus reduce in 
weight. 

If sufficient starches, sugars, and fats are not con- 
sumed in the body to supply the daily heat and energy 
released by exercise, the body calls on the reserve 
store in the tissues. If much fat or carbohydrates 
are consumed in the daily food this will be oxidized 
before the fat stored in the muscular tissue is called on. 

The scientific reduction of weight, therefore, lies 
in the regulation of the daily consumption of starches, 
sugars, and fats, and the oxidation of more of these 
substances through an increase in the daily exercise. 

Deep breathing of pure air should accompany all 
exercises to supply sufficient oxygen for combustion 
or oxidation. 

In warm weather little fat is needed for fuel, and 
Nature provides fresh green vegetables to replace 
the root vegetables of the cold weather, which, con- 
sisting largely of starches and sugars, are readily 
converted into heat. 



126 What to Eat and When 

In cold weather, especially in high altitudes or 
latitudes, more fuel foods are required to keep the 
body warm and more fat is eaten. 

It must be remembered that anything which creates 
a greater activity of the tissues, such as muscular 
exercise, liberates a greater amount of heat. The 
reverse is also true. A decrease in the amount of 
muscular movement means a decrease in the libera- 
tion of heat. During exercise, a large amount of 
carbohydrates and fats are released by the move- 
ments and oxidized; the liberated heat is carried to 
all parts of the system and the temperature is raised. 

Food in the alimentary canal causes an activity 
in the glands of the digestive organs maintaining 
their temperature. 

Of course, while digestion and muscular activity 
are at their height, the body temperature is highest. 
The temperature, as a rule, decreases from about six 
at night until four or five in the morning, when it is 
usually at its ebb. This is a point of importance. A 
degree or two of increase in temperature, above 
normal, if recorded about six at night, is not, in most 
conditions, considered alarming by the physician. 

Anything which causes an increase in heat radiation, 
as perspiration, lowers the temperature, and the open 
pores of the skin are valuable aids in equalizing the 
body heat. A person who perspires freely does not 
suffer with heat during excessive exercise, as does one 
whose pores are closed. 

Diuretic foods and beverages, such as water and 
fruits (melons, lemons, oranges, grapefruit, etc.), 
which increase the activity of the skin and the kid- 
neys, also tend to lower the body temperature. 

One ready means of regulating the body heat is the 



Beverages 127 

bath. If one takes a hot bath, the temperature is 
materially raised by the artificial heat, but there is a 
recompense in the increase of heat radiation from 
the skin and the reaction is cooling. If one takes 
a cold bath, the immediate effect is cooling, but the 
activity set up within, to create a reaction, soon 
heats the body to a greater degree than before the 
bath. 

The best way to increase the evaporation and thus 
decrease the temperature of the body is by a tepid 
shower or a tepid sponge. The tepid water will not 
create a strong reaction, and it will cause a decrease 
in temperature. Thus, for fever patients or on a 
warm day, the tepid shower or sponge is commended ; 
for a cold day, or for the individual whose circulation 
is sluggish, the cold bath, followed by friction, is 
desirable. When the vitality is low, so that reaction 
is slow or chilly feelings persist, the bath must be 
tempered and greater friction used. 

The generation of heat is also increased by solid 
foods that require more than normal activity on the 
part of the digestive organs. For this reason the 
food given fever patients should be that most easily 
digested and should be reduced in quantity. Liquid 
or semi-liquid foods are best. 

While the elements of the food are being oxidized, 
the latent (potential) energy released by the oxygen 
creates mental and physical force and keeps active 
the metabolic changing of food into tissues and cells, 
also the changing of cells and tissues into waste. 

Scientists have measured the energy latent in food 
material, also the amount of heat given off in the 
oxidation of a given quantity of waste. The unit 
of measurement is the calorie — the amount of heat 



128 What to Eat and When 

which will raise one pound of water 4 degrees Fahr- 
enheit. 

The fuel value of any food denotes the total number 
of calories which may be derived from a pound of that 
food if it be completely oxidized in the body. 

C. F. Langworthy gives the fuel value of proteins, 
fats, and carbohydrates as follows : 

1 pound of protein yields i860 calories 

I " " fats " 4220 " 

I " " carbohydrates yields i860 " 

That is, according to fuel value — the capacity of 
the nutrients for yielding heat and mechanical power — 
a pound of the protein of lean meat or egg albumen 
just about equals a pound of starch or sugar, and 
about two pounds of these would about equal a pound 
of the fat of meat or of the body fat. 

The calculation has been made, based on experi- 
ments, that one who does no muscular work needs 
only an amount of food which will produce 2700 calo- 
ries. One doing light muscular work needs 3000 
calories. An individual doing moderately heavy 
work should take 3500 calories, while heavy muscular 
work takes 4500 calories. 

One hundred grams of protein food, however, gives 
only fifteen per cent, of the amount of energy re- 
quired. About 500 grams of carbohydrate and 50 
grams of fat are needed to make up the 3000 calories 
which must be furnished by the daily supply of food 
for one doing light muscular work. 

The brain worker, who is using brain tissue more 
rapidly than the day laborer, should have a diet 
equally as rich in protein, though less fat and carbo- 
hydrates are needed. 



Beverages 129 

It has been estimated that an ordinary man on full 
diet excretes about twenty grams (about five-eighths 
of an ounce) of nitrogen a day. As protein material 
contains about sixteen per cent, of nitrogen, such an 
individual needs to take about 120 grams of protein 
a day to supply the nitrogen needs of the body. Be- 
cause of its need for protein, the body does not store it. 

A day laborer needs 0.28 of a pound of protein a 
day with enough fat and carbohydrate to give a fuel 
value of 3500 calories. A professional man requires 
0- 2 5 (>40 of a pound of protein a day. Much more 
than this is usually taken. This means from y z to 
yi a pound of lean meat. 

Nothing is lost in Nature's distribution of force and 
energy. Everything accomplished in life, either in the 
physical handling of material, the brain work in plan- 
ning the constructions, the mental movements of thought 
in art, literature, or science, are all representatives of 
the heat and energy released from the body, and every 
man and woman should endeavor to make the body yield 
as large an income as possible in the expression of this 
energy. In order that it may do so, it must be used with 
intelligence, just as any other great machine must be 
used intelligently; it must be fed, exercised, and rested 
judiciously. 



CHAPTER V 

REPAIR AND ELIMINATION OF WASTE (METABOLISM) 

THE work of the body never stops. If it is to be 
kept in thorough working order its tissues must 
be rebuilt as incessantly as they are torn down in 
the process of producing heat and energy. These 
chemical changes are called collectively metabolism. 

They are divided into two groups: the chemical 
process of building up complex substances from simple 
ones is known as anabolism; the chemical process of 
oxidizing and breaking down the complex substances 
into simple ones, so that they are in a state to be 
excreted, is called catabolism. While the process of 
oxidation in catabolism is going on, heat and energy 
are set free. Many of the chemical changes in the 
body are catabolic in character. This work never 
ceases — even in sleep. 

It is not enough that the proper foods be furnished 
the body in kind and quantity. The essential thing 
is that the system be kept in condition to assimilate 
the foods to its needs and to promptly eliminate the 
waste. Few people assimilate all of the foods eaten. 

By assimilation is meant the process by which food- 
stuffs are made soluble and diffusible, so that they 
can pass into the blood; also, the metabolic activity 
by which the food is converted into cells and tissues. 

130 



Repair and Elimination of Waste 131 

Truly the body is a busy workshop. Think of the 
billions on billions of cells being formed and destroyed 
every instant in the liberation of heat and force ! Think, 
also, of the necessity of perfect circulation to bring 
sufficient blood to the lungs, that it may gather the 
oxygen and carry it, without pausing for rest, to 
every tissue of the body! Even in sleep this stream 
continues incessantly. 

There is also a great lesson here in the law of supply 
and demand. When the body is at mental or muscular 
work, the potential energy liberated leaves through 
muscle or brain, as energy, and is expressed in the 
result of the work. When the body is at rest, energy 
leaves it as heat (excepting such part as is necessary 
to carry on metabolism, circulation, etc.). 

If much muscular energy is called for, a deep, full 
breath is instinctively drawn to supply the oxygen 
necessary for the added force. 

If strong mental work is required, attention should 
be given to exercise and deep breathing, that the blood 
may carry off the waste liberated by brain activity. 
The difficulty is that in doing close mental work, the 
body is too frequently bent over a desk in such a 
manner as to restrict the action of the lungs; thus, 
the brain worker, in order to continue strong mental 
work, must often go into the open air, as he says, 
"to rest his brain," but in reality to obtain the 
oxygen needed to put the waste, liberated by brain 
energy, in condition to be carried away. The sup- 
ply of blood has been called on for the brain work; 
the poor circulation through the body has allowed 
an excess of carbon dioxid to accumulate and* the 
condition of the body designated as "tired" has 
resulted. Until the necessary oxygen has been sup- 



132 What to Eat and When 

plied, the brain and body are not balanced, not 
"rested." 

In its conversion into tissue, heat, energy, and 
waste, the importance of the chemical exceeds that 
of the mechanical action of digestion, absorption, as- 
similation, and elimination; yet the chemical changes 
are aided by the mechanical. 

Nature provides against ignorance of the amount 
of supply necessary, by enabling the system to carry 
off a limited amount of surplus food above the bodily 
requirements. Her capacity in this regard is limited 
and varies with each individual. Therefore common 
sense is required in deciding for oneself the amount 
of food which will aid, and not hinder Nature in her 
processes. 

Without doubt many eat more food than the system 
requires, and when it is overloaded they do not take 
the pains to burn up and eliminate the excess through 
exercise and oxygen. 

On the other hand, this theory of overeating has 
been so long discussed that many have not eaten 
sufficient food and their bodies are undernourished. 
Many, also, from lack of exercise, hence lack of demand 
of the body for food, have supposed this lack of appe- 
tite to be Nature's call "Enough" ; inertia has resulted 
and waste remains in the body. They have failed to 
exercise sufficiently to create a demand for food. It 
is thus undernourished because sufficient new build- 
ing material has not been supplied. The relief from 
this condition is exercise and deep breathing so that 
Nature removes the waste and calls for fresh building 
material. 

Many others, through mental and physical activity, 
burn up much fuel and the result is the body does 



Repair and Elimination of Waste 133 

not store up sufficient fat for a reserve, or for beauty 
and comfort. The nerves require a certain amount of 
fat for their protection. People of this type should 
take a more full and sometimes a more varied diet, 
particularly more liquid, and should not fail in daily 
exercise and deep breathing. 

Each individual should know, approximately, the 
chemical constituents and the proportion of these con- 
stituents in normal blood, because from the elements 
in the blood, the tissues are constructed. If certain 
elements are lacking, the foods containing these ele- 
ments in largest proportions should be supplied until 
the blood no longer shows the deficiency. This is 
Nature's method of correction. The variations in the 
blood can be known only by chemical analyses and 
until physicians have access to chemical laboratories 
the giving of drugs cannot be a science. 

Each meal, or each day's food, may not contain the 
amount of protein or of fuel ingredients necessary 
for that day's work and resupply, but the body is 
continually storing material, and this reserve is con- 
stantly being drawn on to provide any element which 
may be lacking in that day's supply. Thus, an excess 
or a deficiency one day may be adjusted the next. 
Healthful nourishment requires that the balance, as a 
whole, be kept and that a deficiency or oversupply 
be not continued for too long. 

The distinct steps in anabolism and the effect of 
oxygen on assimilation are discussed in the following 
pages. 

DIGESTION 

Any discussion of the digestibility of foods must be 
general, because food which agrees with one may dis- 



134 What to Eat and When 

agree with another, and a food which disagrees with 
one at a particular time may entirely agree with him 
at some other time according to the condition of his 
system. Therefore, before one passes on the adapta- 
bility of a food to his system, he should know that 
this food agrees or disagrees with him under various 
conditions. 

The chances are that the food is right but that the 
attitude of mind and the condition of the body are 
abnormal. 

The digestibility of food depends largely on the 
physical condition of the individual, because the 
amount of digestive juices poured into the alimentary 
canal is influenced by this condition, particularly 
by the condition of the nerves. If sufficient juices, 
in proper proportions, are not poured into the digest- 
ive tract, the foodstuffs are not made soluble for 
absorption. 

Digestion is practically synonymous with solution 
— all solid foods must be reduced to a liquid state by 
means of the digestive juices and water before they 
can pass through the walls of the stomach and intes- 
tines and enter the blood. 

Each individual should learn to like the foods con- 
taining the nutrient elements which experience and 
blood tests have shown to be lacking in his case. 

Yet while it is true that in most cases the aversion 
to a particular food is largely mental, there are kinds 
of food which, to certain individuals, according to the 
chemical composition of the body, act as actual 
poisons, e. g., strawberries, cheese, or coffee. 

The question of likes and of dislikes in foods, is 
largely habit, and one can learn to like almost any 
food, if one really has the desire to do so. 



Repair and Elimination of Waste 135 

When the habit has been formed of discriminating 
too much in the food, of discarding this food or that, 
because at some time it has disagreed, due to the 
particular condition at the time, the mind approaches 
the table in a pessimistic attitude and the saliva and 
the gastric juices are retarded in their flow. 

When one is exercising freely, so that the muscular 
and mucous coats of the digestive system are strong, 
the body will handle foods which, during sedentary 
habits, it would not digest. 

Much indigestion is due to mental apathy. The 
mind often needs arousing to an interest in something. 

Such an individual needs to know that one of the 
hardest things for the members of his family is to live 
day by day with one who maintains an attitude of 
mental depression, and he should stir himself for 
"his stomach's sake/' as well as for the sake of his 
family, to a cheerful interest in something. He 
should let go his grudge and ride a hobby, if it is a 
cheerful one, and ride it hard. 

It may be well, here, to trace, briefly, the progress 
of the food through the digestive tract and the action 
of the juices and the ferments on it. 1 

The food in the mouth is mixed with Salivary 
saliva, which begins the dissolution of the Digestion 
starches. 

The saliva consists of about 99.5 per cent, water 

1 For a knowledge of the structure and function of the mucous 
lining of the stomach and intestines, and of the tributary glands, 
such as the liver and pancreas, which is important to a thorough 
understanding of digestion, the reader is referred to Let's Be 
Healthy, of this series. In this will be found a study of the 
secretion of digestive juices, the conditions favoring normal 
secretions, etc. 



136 What to Eat and When 

and 0.5 per cent, solids. The solids consist of ptyalin, 
sodium chlorid, sodium carbonate, mucus, and epi- 
thelium. Ptyalin, the most important of these, is 
the active digestive agent; the mucus lubricates the 
masticated food; the sodium carbonate insures the al- 
kalinity of the food, and the water dissolves the food 
that the juices may more readily reach and act on 
each particle. 

The starches are the only foods whose chemical 
digestion is begun in the mouth. They are first 
broken up by the ptyalin into dextrin and then into 
the more simple sugar, known as maltose. 1 

It is important that sufficient saliva be mixed with 
the food through mastication, because unless the 
digestion of the starches is begun by the saliva, either 
in the mouth or after it is swallowed, they are not 
acted on until they reach the small intestine, conse- 
quently their digestion is unduly delayed. The 
pancreatic juice must then do more than its normal 
work of digestion. 

The saliva flows into the mouth, more or less, at 
all times, but more copiously during mastication. 

The movement of the jaws in chewing incites its 
flow and when starches are not well digested, gum 
chewing, in moderation, though not a refined habit, 
is beneficial. 

The evident purpose of the saliva when food is not 
present is to keep the lining of the mouth moist 

Salivary digestion is carried on in the stomach until 
the food becomes thoroughly mixed with the gastric 

1 Hereafter, in speaking of sugar, after it has been absorbed into 
the blood, the reader will bear in mind that the term refers not 
only to digested sugar, consumed as such, but also to digested 
starches (maltose). 



Repair and Elimination of Waste 137 

juice, which, being acid, inhibits the action of the 
ptyalin. 

The thorough and regular cleansing of the teeth 
is an important aid to digestion. Food products 
allowed to remain about the teeth ferment, rendering 
the mouth acid. When the mouth is acid, the alka- 
line saliva does not secrete in sufficient amount and 
the mouth is more or less dry. 

The mouth is acid in rheumatism and allied condi- 
tions and the saliva may be thick and ropy so that it 
does not moisten the food properly. On the other 
hand the flow of saliva may be too free, the ptyalin 
is then too much diluted to promptly act on the food. 
This may result from overstimulation of the salivary 
glands occasioned by the excessive chewing of gum, or 
tobacco. These excesses also carry too much air into 
the stomach, resulting in flatulence. 

The flow of saliva is controlled, largely, by nerves 
centering in the medulla oblongata. The sight of 
food, pleasingly served, or even the thought of food 
which one likes, will increase the flow. This is one 
instance of the control of thought over digestion, and 
the importance of forming the habit of cultivating 
a taste for all kinds of food is apparent. The stronger 
the relish for the food, and the more thoroughly it is 
masticated and mixed with the saliva, the more 
perfectly will the first step in digestion be accom- 
plished. 

Thorough mastication is important, not only be- 
cause the chemical action on the starch molecules is 
facilitated by the softening and mixing with the saliva, 
but also because thorough mastication tends to pre- 
vent overeating — the appetite is more quickly satisfied 
when the food is well masticated. 



138 What to Eat and When 

Cool water encourages the flow of saliva and for 
this reason should be drunk before meals, particu- 
larly when digestion is weak. It may be taken at 
rest periods during the meal. (See page 31.) 

The relation of the mouth and nasal 

The Mouth p assa g es to the digestive processes is seldom 

find N3.S3.1 

p considered by the average individual. 

Their importance to the growing child is 

being recognized by the examination of school children 

which is now being made a part of the health program 

in many of our cities. Their importance to the adult 

is no less. 

Food particles allowed to remain around the teeth, 
or in the cavities of decayed teeth, incite bacterial 
action. With the next meal these bacteria are swal- 
lowed and cause fermentation of the food, occasioning 
indigestion, and possibly, dyspepsia. 

Decayed or missing teeth, swollen gums, or pyor- 
rhea, interfere with proper mastication of food, hence 
it does not receive the thorough salivary moistening 
necessary; the starches pass practically unchanged 
into the stomach and small intestine, overburdening 
these organs. 

Catarrh of the nasal passages, with the constant 
swallowing of germ-filled secretions, carries morbid 
products into the stomach, coating the glands with 
mucus, often infecting them; it may also occasion a 
catarrhal condition of that organ. 

If, from any cause, the saliva becomes acid, dryness 
of the mouth results and desire for food is lessened or 
absent. Diseases of the salivary glands may render 
these necessary secretions unfit to perform their work. 

In illness the mouth often drops open from weak- 



Repair and Elimination of Waste 139 

ness, producing the same condition of dryness. The 
mouth, in illness, is too often neglected by those in 
charge of the invalid. 

Adenoids and enlarged turbinates in child or adult, 
narrowing the nasal passages and preventing the 
ingress of air, cause mouth breathing. The air dries 
the membranes and the tongue becomes swollen and 
cracks, interfering with proper mastication. 

Adenoids should be removed, and any other condi- 
tion which interferes with the proper function of the 
mouth should be remedied as soon as possible. 

The mouth should be properly cleansed, the gums 
massaged, the teeth thoroughly brushed, back as well 
as front, defective teeth repaired or removed, ab- 
normal growths eliminated, and the secretions kept 
abundant and healthy. Food well prepared in the 
mouth by thorough mastication satisfies hunger, 
renders more easy the work of the stomach and in- 
testines, and aids in the general welfare of the system. 

This too prevalent habit may aggravate 
the condition which it is supposed to cure. . . 
A slight indigestion appearing, gum is 
often chewed to cause a fuller flow of saliva to aid 
digestion. If gum-chewing is indulged in to excess, 
however, the muscular movements overstimulate the 
salivary glands, eventually weakening them. Over- 
use of the chewing muscles and overexcitation of the 
nerves fatigue them and cause them to weaken. The 
sticky gum, adhering to fillings in the teeth, loosens 
them and furnishes a lodging place for food particles 
and bacteria. 

The excess of saliva may render the gastric juice 
alkaline, inhibiting its action. Excess of air swal- 



140 What to Eat and When 

lowed with the saliva may cause flatulence or accumu- 
lation of gas in the stomach. 

Lack of poise and nerve tension is increased by 
excessive gum-chewing, resulting in fatigue of the 
entire body. This lack of poise may be noted in any 
public assembly, as the "movies," frequented by 
gum-chewers. 

The habit, as generally practiced, is not an inspiring 
sight and should be discouraged. 

Gum-chewing in moderation, for a few minutes 
after a meal, may not do harm, but its indiscrimi- 
nate use is to be deplored. Thorough mastica- 
tion of food will serve to supply the necessary 
saliva. 

Exercise directed to the stomach and a more thor- 
ough circulation and elimination will do more for any 
digestive derangement than the excessive practice of 
chewing gum. 

As the food enters the stomach, the 
Stomach .... . x1 

Digestion g astnc juice pours out from the mucous 

lining, very much as the saliva pours into 

the mouth. Like the saliva, it consists of 99.5 per 

cent, water and 0.5 per cent, solids. The solids of 

the gastric juice are pepsin, rennin, hydrochloric acid, 

and mucus. 

The mucus serves to lubricate the food as in the 
saliva. It perhaps also aids to prevent the digestion 
of the mucous lining of the stomach. 

The hydrochloric acid and the pepsin cause the 
principal chemical changes in the food while in the 
stomach. They act only on the proteins. The 
hydrochloric acid must be present before the pepsin 
can act, as only in an acid medium can pepsin dissolve 



Repair and Elimination of Waste 141 

the proteins. It is also of an antiseptic nature and 
hinders or prevents the decomposition of food. 

The rennin ferment precipitates the casein. 

The only digestion of starches in the stomach is 
that continued by the saliva. 

Gastric juice begins to flow into the stomach soon 
after eating, but normally it is not secreted in sufficient 
quantity to supersede salivary digestion for from 
twenty to forty-five minutes. 

The result of gastric digestion of proteins is their 
conversion, first, into albumin, then into proteoses, 
and, lastly, into peptone, which is protein in a more 
simple, soluble, and diffusible form. In the form of 
peptone, the proteins are in condition to be absorbed. 

If the food has been properly cooked and masti- 
cated, gastric digestion will be completed in from one 
and one-half to three hours. If not properly cooked 
and masticated, the stomach digestion may continue 
from one to two hours longer. It should, however, 
be completed in three hours. 

It will be seen that the evening meal is ordinarily 
digested before sleep, as one does not retire for from 
three to five hours after eating. 

If, through imperfect mastication, or a disordered 
condition of the stomach, the digestion is not com- 
pleted in about three hours, the food is likely to be 
retained in the stomach and by its weight may cause 
prolapsus of that organ if the supporting tissues are 
weak. Fermentation may ensue and give rise to 
gases which may cause acute distress. 

Animal foods, which are readily digested, remain 
in the stomach for a shorter time. Meat, as a rule, 
is easily digested, because the digestive juices of the 
animal have converted the starches and sugars. The 



142 What to Eat and When 

white meat of chicken is digested in a shorter time 
than the red or the dark meat. 

Corn, beets, peas, beans, etc., take about three and 
a half hours to digest; baked potatoes about two and 
a half hours. 

Raw vegetables and fruits remain about the same 
length of time as potatoes. 

Sugar is usually absorbed within an hour. 

The cereals, if well cooked, take but two hours. 

Coarse or badly masticated food, tough meats, 
unripe fruits, and much fat hinder digestion. 

Undigested food passing into the intestine may fail 
to be acted on there and will sometimes produce 
diarrhea. 

Fluids leave the stomach more rapidly than solids. 
Seven ounces of water entirely leaves the stomach in 
one and one-half hours, seven ounces of boiled milk 
in about two hours. Water and buttermilk almost 
immediately begin to pass out of the stomach; milk 
begins to pass out in about fifteen minutes. 

The flow of gastric juice, as the flow of saliva, is 
governed by the nerves; the sight, taste, and smell 
of food, and the attitude of mind toward it, to a certain 
extent, regulate its flow. 

After the food has accumulated, during the progress 
of a meal, the stomach begins a series of wave-like 
movements called peristaltic waves. 1 These waves 
propel the food through the length of the stomach 
towards its lower opening, known as the pyloric 
orifice. During this process the food is thoroughly 
mixed with the gastric juice. 

During the early stages of digestion of solids, the 
sphincter muscles of the pylorus keep the lower open- 

1 See Let's Be Healthy, by Susanna Cocrof t. 



Repair and Elimination of Waste 143 

ing of the stomach closed, but, as digestion progresses, 
the pylorus gradually relaxes to let the digested, 
soluble portion of the food pass into the intestine. 
If the food still remains in a solid form, by reason of 
being improperly cooked or poorly masticated, as it 
touches the pylorus, these sphincter muscles, almost 
as if they were endowed with reasoning faculties, 
close, forcing the undigested mass back to be further 
acted on by the gastric juice — the solid mass is not 
allowed to pass until dissolved. 

If the individual abuses the stomach and causes it 
to work overtime, it becomes exhausted and demands 
rest ; it refuses to discharge the gastric juice in proper 
proportion; the peristaltic movements are weak; and 
food is not promptly or forcefully moved along the 
stomach and mixed with the gastric juice. This 
condition is termed indigestion. 

The food passes from the stomach, 
through the pylorus into the small intestine. r>ia es tion 
In this condition of partial digestion it is 
called chyme. 

The first twelve inches of the small intestine is 
known as the duodenum. In the duodenum the 
food is acted on by the pancreatic juice, the bile, and 
the intestinal juices. These juices act on proteins, 
fats, and carbohydrates. The bile acts on the fats, 
while the pancreatic and intestinal juices act on the 
proteins and the carbohydrates. The starches, or 
dextrin, not fully digested by the saliva, are changed 
to maltose and glucose, while the trypsin from the 
pancreatic juice, together with the intestinal juices, 
change into peptone the protein not fully digested in 
the stomach. The pancreatic juice also digests the 



144 What to Eat and When 

starch found in raw fruits and in such raw vegetables 
as radishes and lettuce. 

Fats are almost entirely digested in the small in- 
testine. The presence of fat stimulates the flow of 
pancreatic juice, which, in turn, stimulates the flow 
of bile. For this reason, in some conditions, if the 
liver is sluggish, fatty foods in moderation are desir- 
able. When bile is not present in sufficient amount 
the fatty foods ferment and cause gases and foul 
odors. 

The fats are absorbed almost entirely in the small 
intestine — mostly in the duodenum. Some of the 
fat may be absorbed directly without undergoing the 
process of emulsification. Some oils, as paraffin oil, 
are not absorbed at all but act only as a lubricant of 
the intestines. 

When the food enters the intestine its reaction is 
acid. Mixed with the bile, pancreatic and intestinal 
juices, which are alkaline, its reaction becomes alkaline. 

The pancreatic juice splits up the fats into glycerin 
and fatty acids and enables the bile to exert its im- 
portant emulsifying power. The bile markedly aids 
this action of the pancreatic juice though it has no 
fat-splitting power in itself. 

Steapsin, another ferment of the pancreatic juice, 
acts on both fats and carbohydrates in either an acid 
or alkaline medium. 

The sodium in the bile unites with the fatty acid, 
forming a soap which coats the tiny particles of fat 
and emulsifies them. The bile thus aids in the absorp- 
tion of the fats. It also lubricates the intestinal mass, 
facilitating its passage through the entire length of 
the intestines. Thus it is a very potent agent in 
regulating the bowel movements. 



Repair and Elimination of Waste 145 

A diminution in the flow of bile quickly expresses 
itself in constipation. 

Fat and protein stimulate the activity of the liver, 
while starches, if taken in excess, incline to overload it. 

The food is forced along the intestinal tract by 
peristaltic or muscular relaxation and contraction 
waves, as in the stomach. As it is so forced, the 
nutrient elements, after being put into condition for 
absorption, are taken up through the villi of the intes- 
tinal walls by the portal veins and the lacteals of the 
submucous lining. 

A larger proportion of food is digested and absorbed 
than was formerly supposed, and the excretions from 
the intestines are, in many cases, made up almost 
entirely of refuse, and of the catabolic waste of the 
system. In an ordinary mixed diet, it is stated that 
about ninety-two per cent, of the proteins, ninety-five 
per cent, of the fats, and ninety-seven per cent, of the 
carbohydrates are retained by the body. 

In digestion, it is of the utmost importance that the 
muscular, mucous, and submucous coats, and the secreting 
glands of the stomach and intestines be kept thoroughly 
strong and active, that the digestive juices may be freely 
poured out, the nutriment be freely absorbed, and the 
food be moved along the digestive tract. The strength of 
any organ is gained through the nutriment in the blood; 
therefore, daily exercise, which calls the blood freely to these 
organs is imperative. Daily exercise should be directed 
to the vital organs. A walk for exercise is not sufficient. 

The greater part of the food is absorbed 
through the intestines, yet some proteins fFood 
which have been fully digested by the 
gastric juice, and certain fats, particularly the fats 



146 



What to Eat and When 



in milk, which are in a natural state of emulsion, may- 
be absorbed through the walls of the stomach. How- 
ever, the absorption 
through the stomach is 
small compared to that 
through the small intes- 
tine. 

The small intestine is 
peculiarly fitted for ab- 
sorption. Its mucous 
lining is thrown up into 
folds to furnish a larger 
surface for this purpose. 
The folds hold the food 
as it passes toward the 
large intestine, until the 
villi have the oppor- 
tunity to absorb it. 

These transverse folds 
of the intestinal walls 
are called valvules con- 
niventes. 




Diagrammatic Representa- 
tion of Villus. 
a, I, cylindrical or "sucking" 

cells; 2, goblet cell; 3, capil- 
laries; 4, food particles ready 

for absorption by the cells; &, 

cylindrical and goblet cells 

seen from above. — Adapted 

from Landois. 

The villi are tiny fin- 
ger-like projections of the mucous lining of the intes- 
tines, which stand out of the lining somewhat as the 
nap on plush. They have been called ''sucking " villi, 
because during the movements of the intestines they 
seem to suck in the liquid food. 

As soon as the foodstuffs — proteins, carbohydrates, 
and fats — are put in an absorbable state called 
chyle, they are very promptly taken up by the 
villi. 

If for any reason the chyle remains unabsorbed, 



Repair and Elimination of Waste 147 

it is liable to be attacked by the bacteria always 
present in the intestines, and gases form. 

The peptones, sugars, and saponified fats are rapidly 
absorbed, while the undigested portion, together with 
the unabsorbed water, the bile, mucus, and bacterial 
products, are passed through the ileocecal valve into 
the large intestine. 

The mass passes up the ascending colon, on the 
right side of the abdomen, across the transverse, and 
down the descending colon, on the left side, losing, 
by absorption, the small amount of foodstuffs not 
absorbed in the stomach and small intestine. That 
the large intestine is to some extent adapted to ab- 
sorption is shown by clinical experiments with patients 
who cannot retain food in the stomach, the food in 
such cases being given through rectal injections. 

While water and salt are absorbed in both the stom- 
ach and small intestine, the larger part of the water 
passes into the large intestine, that it may assist the 
passage of the intestinal contents. 

Water also stimulates peristaltic movements. 

As the food is absorbed through the walls of the 
alimentary canal, it is picked up by the rootlets of 
the mesenteric veins and by the lymph channels — 
the latter through the abdominal cavity are called 
lacteals. Nearly all of the fats are absorbed through 
the lacteals. The whitish color given to the contents 
of the lacteals, by the saponified fats, gives rise to 
the term "lacteal." 

Nearly all of the proteins and sugars pass through 
the mesenteric veins and the portal veins to the liver. 
Here the sugars are at once attacked by the Hver 
cells and built up into glycogen as described on pages 
151 and 159. A small portion of the proteins, how- 



148 What to Eat and When 

ever, do not go to the liver, but are passed directly 
into the lymphatics and thus into the blood stream, 
where they are again carried to the liver, and the urea 
is separated. 

To sum up, the larger part of the sugars, starches, 
proteins, and fats is absorbed through the small intes- 
tine, a small amount being absorbed in the stomach and 
a very little through the large intestine. While some 
water and salts are absorbed in the stomach and small 
intestine, these are largely absorbed in the large 
intestine. 

It is economy to keep the digestive 

i C p no ^ y organs and the circulation and tissues 

strong, in order that all foods eaten may 

yield returns, instead of hampering the activity of 

the body. 

The food which furnishes the most tissue-building 
substance and yields the most heat and energy, with 
the least refuse, is the economical food, provided it is 
varied enough to meet the psychical needs as well as 
the physical. 

Whether or not a food is economical depends on 
the degree to which it stimulates the activity of 
the mind as well as the body. Preparation and 
serving here are as important as the material to be 
served. 

Economy in food is a question into which many 
factors should enter. A cheap food is not always an 
economical food. Amount and keeping qualities, 
palatability, ripeness or unripeness, the age, habit, 
and occupation of the partakers, all have their share 
in the problem. 



Repair and Elimination of Waste 149 

In the selection of food for any individual, the 
result to be gained from the food must be borne in 
mind. If one is doing heavy muscular work, more 
protein to rebuild tissue, as well as more carbohy- 
drates and fats to produce energy, are required than 
if one's habits of work are sedentary. 

In mental work, in which the brain is continually 
active, proteins are required to resupply the brain 
tissue, but the fats and carbohydrates may be lessened. 
If the brain is sufficiently active to use all of the fuel 
in brain energy one does not accumulate fat. 

In sedentary occupations, which do not call for 
hard and continuous mental activity, the carbo- 
hydrates and fats, if taken in excess, are stored within 
the system, clogging it and producing torpid liver, 
constipation, and obesity. 

In a study of tables of food values, in making up a 
dietary, the question should be to provide the largest 
quantity of nutriment at the lowest cost, with due 
attention to palatability and variety. 

In the selection of meats, for instance, while beef 
steak may cost twice as much as beef stew, it must be 
borne in mind that beefsteak contains very little 
waste, and that it contains a large proportion of albu- 
minoids, or the tissue-building proteins, while, in beef 
stew, bone and connective tissue predominate. A 
large proportion of the proteins obtained from the 
beef stew are gelatinoids and extractives — not the 
tissue-building albuminoids. (See page 56.) 

In comparing the cheaper and the more expensive 
cuts in the same kind of beefsteak, however, the 
cheaper cuts often yield quite as much nutriment as 
the more expensive ones. Round steak is just as 
nourishing as porterhouse and cheaper, if one considers 



150 What to Eat and When 

the greater number of helpings derived from a pound 
of round steak than from a pound of porterhouse. 

For the aged or the invalid, however, the question 
of preparation will determine the relative economy. 



CHAPTER VI 

ORGANS AND CONDITIONS AFFECTING DIGESTION 

THE purpose of this chapter is to show the work 
of other than the digestive organs in assimila- 
tion, construction, and elimination. 

The liver is commonly called the chemical workshop 
of the body. The digested food is carried by the 
blood (portal veins) to the liver as soon as it is 
absorbed from the alimentary canal. As the food 
materials filter through the blood capillaries, between 
the liver cells, several substances are absorbed, parti- 
cularly sugar, which is changed into the animal 
starch called glycogen. It is held in the liver for a 
few hours in this form and is then redigested and 
gradually given to the blood in the form of sugar. 

While the conversion of the sugar is one prominent 
function of the liver, it also acts on the proteins — 
not as they are first passed through the liver in the 
blood, but as they are returned to the liver from the 
muscle tissue, partly oxidized and broken up into 
simpler products. The liver cells absorb and further 
oxidize and combine them into nitrogenous waste, 
which the kidneys throw off in urea. 

The liver and the spleen also dissolve the pigment 
or coloring matter out of the red blood corpuscles. 
As these become useless, they are broken up in the 

151 



152 What to Eat and When 

liver and the spleen. The iron is retained by the 
liver cells and the remainder is thrown off in the bile. 

The liver is on guard for all poisons which pass 
through it in the blood. The large part of these 
toxic substances are absorbed through the alimentary 
canal with the foodstuffs. Many of them are the 
result of the fermentation of foods which are not 
digested so promptly or so thoroughly as they should 
be, on account of an insufficient secretion of digestive 
juices, or on account of a failure to secrete them in 
normal proportions, due to inactivity of the stomach 
and intestines. 

Nature thus supplies a guard to oxidize, or break 
down these poisons and make them harmless, so 
that normally they do not affect the nerves and the 
blood stream, and, through these, the entire system. 

The necessity of correct habits of deep breathing 
will be readily seen here, because oxygen is required 
to break down the poisons as well as to oxidize the 
worn-out tissues. 

One example of the action of the liver in rendering 
substances harmless, is its oxidation of alcohol. From 
one to three ounces of alcohol a day may be oxidized 
and made harmless in the liver, varying according to 
the individual and to the condition, at different 
times, in the same person. If the limit of one to 
three ounces is exceeded, the excess is not oxidized 
and intoxication results. This is the reason one may 
become intoxicated at one time when the same amount 
of liquor would not appreciably affect one at another. 

The muscles play an important part in the use of 
foods. Most of the heat is generated in them by the 
action of the oxygen in the blood upon the sugar 
and fats, liberating their latent heat. This heat is 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 153 

liberated during every moment of the twenty-four 
hours whether one is asleep or awake. Of course, 
more is liberated during exercise, since the movement 
of the muscles sets all tissues into activity and the 
blood circulates more strongly, bringing a greater 
supply of oxygen to them. 

It is always well during active exercise to stop fre- 
quently and fully inflate the lungs, not only to bring 
more oxygen to the blood, but to change the residual 
air and in the inflation to exercise the lung tissue more 
freely, bringing a better supply of nourishment to it. 
We forget that the lung tissue as well as every other 
tissue of the body needs exercise and a full supply of 
nourishment. 

One should form the habit of breathing fully and 
deeply — otherwise the liberated carbon dioxid will 
cause an increased pressure throughout the blood 
stream, particularly about the heart and in the head. 
This pressure is relieved when the excess of carbon 
dioxid has been thrown off by the lungs. Much dull 
headache is due to the retention of carbon dioxid 
resulting from shallow breathing. 

Nature makes the effort to throw off this excess of 
carbon dioxid by forcing one to breathe more rapidly 
while running or taking unusual exercise. 

A certain amount of protein is constantly oxidized 
in muscular action also, being broken down into carbon 
dioxid, water, and a number of nitrogenous mid- 
products. The carbon dioxid and water are thrown 
off by the lungs, and the partially oxidized nitroge- 
nous waste is carried to the liver, where it is further 
oxidized and prepared for excretion through the kid- 
neys, lungs, skin, and intestines. 

Through their stimulant action, the nerves aid in 



154 What to Eat and When 

oxidizing food materials. During periods of rest, 
food materials are also stored in the nerve cells. 
During nervous activity they are oxidized and carried 
away through the blood and the lymph. This oxida- 
tion of the food, stored in the nerves, creates nervous 
energy and heat. 

The energy liberated by the nerves resembles 
electrical energy. 

When one is continuously using an excess of nerve 
activity, all reserve food material, stored in the nerve 
cells, is used and the nerves become undernourished. 
The result is seen in neurasthenic conditions of various 
kinds. 

The nerves as well as other tissues require protein 
to renew their substance as well as fats and carbo- 
hydrates for their energy. 

The vasomotor nerves influence digestion to a 
marked extent by regulating the blood pressure in the 
digestive organs and the consequent rate of speed with 
which digestion and absorption take place. They 
speed up or slow down the movements of the alimen- 
tary canal, thus aiding and preventing the admixture 
of the food with the digestive juices. By acting on 
the glands, they aid or prevent the secretions from 
being formed and poured out. They thus materially 
affect digestion. 

The vasomotor nerve centers are in the medulla 
oblongata. 

The lungs absorb oxygen and eliminate carbon 
dioxid. They occasionally throw off a very little 
organic material. 

The carbon dioxid is carried to the lungs from the 
tissues through the venous stream and diffused 
through the walls of capillaries in the lungs. The 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 155 

oxygen is absorbed in the thin air sacs in the capillary 
walls. 

If the lungs are cramped by a faulty position of the 
body, by excess of fat, or by tight clothing, they can- 
not expand to their fullest extent. The blood is thus 
imperfectly aerated and oxygenized and is not freed 
of its waste. The lung tissue is imperfectly exercised, 
sufficient blood not being brought to the lung cells 
to insure their strength. 

The cramping of the lungs is due largely to incorrect 
habits of standing and sitting. 

The kidneys do not absorb as do the lungs, neither 
do they perform any anabolic work as does the liver, 
nor catabolic work as the muscles, nerves, and the 
liver. They simply throw off waste matter. 

As the blood passes through them urea, uric acid, 
urates, sulphates, and sodium phosphates pass from 
it and with the water are thrown from the system; 
hence the kidneys are purifying organs, as are the 
lungs. The blood returning from the kidneys through 
the veins is pure, just as the blood in the pulmonary 
vein is pure, while that in the arteries to the kidneys 
is impure. 

Interference with the action of the kidneys results 
in an excess of these substances in the blood and may 
produce a condition of intoxication known as uremic 
poisoning. 

The skin, by pressure on the capillaries, controls, 
to some extent, their dilatation, and thus prevents 
an excessive loss of fluid. When a portion of the 
skin is removed by accident, as after burns, drops of 
moisture may be seen gathering on the denuded sur- 
face and may result in considerable loss if the denuded 
surface is large. 



156 What to Eat and When 

The skin is a protective covering. We are con- 
stantly surrounded with bacteria, dirt, etc., and the 
skin prevents their absorption. 

It contains glands which secrete a fluid fat. This 
keeps the skin soft and flexible, preventing it from 
becoming too dry. The skin also prevents the under- 
lying tissues from injury through abrasions or contact 
with foreign substances, as in various industries. 

It also contains sweat glands, which throw off 
body waste in the form of salts and moisture in the 
perspiration ; this helps to regulate the body heat and 
to aid in keeping the skin soft. 

The kidneys and the skin are interdependent; if 
the kidneys are inactive the skin must throw off a 
larger quantity of waste and if the skin is inactive, or 
if for any reason its pores are closed, the kidneys 
become more active. 

The skin also throws off carbon dioxid and, to a 
slight extent, it absorbs oxygen. 

Besides digesting and absorbing food, the intestines 
eliminate waste. 

In their work of elimination, they pass off all un- 
digested matter. They also carry off bile pigment, 
bile salts, mucus, other decomposition products — 
also a little unabsorbed fat. 

Coarse articles of food containing fibers which do 
not digest, such as the bran of grains and the coarser 
fibers of fruits and vegetables (much of their sub- 
stances are not food in the strictest sense), are valu- 
able, as they increase the peristaltic movements of 
the intestines and assist in carrying the waste excre- 
tions along their course. 

The intestines also carry off the organic refuse 
which is produced by the chemical action of oxy- 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 157 

gen. This refuse consists of carbon dioxid and the 
nitrogenous waste. 

Combustion, or burning of fuel in any form (oxida- 
tion to release latent heat and energy), always leaves 
a residue, and it is the work of the intestines to elimi- 
nate much of this refuse. When coal is burned, gas, 
smoke, ashes, and cinders constitute the waste; if 
these were not allowed to escape or were not removed 
from a stove the fire would soon go out — the smoke 
and gas would smother it and the accumulation of 
ashes would prevent the circulation of oxygen. 

This is true in the body — the carbon dioxid not 
being allowed to pass off would soon put out the fires 
of life ; it would poison the body and inhibit the action 
of the nerves. If the waste is not thrown from the 
system we notice it in a feeling of lassitude, both 
mental and physical. If the nitrogenous waste (like 
ashes and cinders) is not eliminated, one will die in 
convulsions in a few days. 

The absolute necessity of a free elimination of waste 
will be readily seen. If the engine is to do its work, 
the engineer sees that it is kept perfectly clean — 
otherwise it becomes clogged, works inefficiently, and 
soon wears out. The same is true in the body — 
clogging in any part overworks and wears out other 
parts dependent on the work of the defective one. 

Constipation, or a failure of the intestines to elimi- 
nate the waste is a grave menace to the system. 
The poisonous gases accumulating are absorbed by 
the system. 

The blood carries the digested food and the oxygen 
to the various tissues and organs, which select from 
among the nutrients offered to them the ones suited 
to their growth and repair. 



158 What to Eat and When 

It is the universal medium of exchange. 

It carries carbon dioxid to the lungs and the wastes 
of the tissues to the other eliminative organs. 

It carries impure material to the purifying organs, 
and pure material away from them. 

When it is lacking in quality or quantity the body 
suffers and if the lack continues the body dies. 

Every organ contributes its share to the work of the 
blood and every organ takes from the blood some of 
its elements. If the blood pressure is too low, stagna- 
tion may occur. If it is too high an abnormal condi- 
tion of the system results. 

In fact, on the condition of the blood depends the 
effective working of the entire organism. 

Constant effort then should be intelligently exerted 
to eat the proper foods, to exercise judiciously, to 
think healthful thoughts, to secure thorough elimina- 
tion of waste in order that the whole body shall be 
fit for the work which its owner desires it to do. 

SUMMARY 

The processes which the food undergoes in diges- 
tion — conversion into condition to be absorbed by 
the body; in absorption through the walls of the 
intestines and stomach, and the metabolic processes 
which it undergoes in being converted into heat and 
energy and again broken down and eliminated as 
waste, are, in brief, as follows : 

The Saliva begins the digestion of starches and 
sugars in the mouth, and continues this digestion for 
a time in the stomach. 

The Stomach, when in normal condition, digests 
the proteins. If any proteins fail of digestion in the 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 159 

stomach the process is completed in the intestines. 
It has little absorptive power. 

The Small Intestine digests and absorbs the fats 
and continues the digestion of starches, sugars, fats, 
and proteins, when this digestion is not completed 
in the stomach. 

The large part of the food is absorbed through the 
small intestine, though a small part is absorbed 
through the walls of the stomach and through the 
large intestine. 

Fats are almost entirely absorbed in the small 
intestine. They are absorbed through the lacteals 
and are carried into the blood-stream. 

The intestines, aside from their work of digestion 
and absorption, excrete bile pigment, bile salts, mucus, 
and other decomposition products, also such food 
materials as are not digested. 

The Liver. The proteins, the starches (converted 
into maltose), and sugars pass into the liver. The 
sugar (including the sugar in vegetables, milk, fruits 
and that used for sweetening as well as the carbo- 
hydrates which have been changed into maltose) is 
converted into glycogen in the liver, stored for a time, 
and again broken down into a condition in which it 
may be absorbed into the blood. 

The proteins pass through the liver but are not 
acted on by this organ until they again return to the 
liver through the blood stream, after they have been 
partly oxidized in the tissues. The liver further 
oxidizes them, putting them into condition to be 
excreted by the kidneys and intestines. 

The liver also breaks up the worn-out red corpuscles 
putting them into condition to be eliminated in the bile. 

It oxidizes and renders harmless poisonous sub- 



160 What to Eat and When 

stances absorbed in the food, such as fermented 
food products and alcohol. 

The Muscles oxidize the fats and sugars liberating 
the latent heat and energy. They partly oxidize 
proteins which are further broken up in the liver. 

The Nerves oxidize food materials stored in the 
nerve cells, providing nervous energy. 

The Lungs absorb oxygen and throw off carbon 
dioxid, watery vapor, and some organic substances. 

The Kidneys and the Skin excrete water, carbon 
dioxid, and nitrogenous waste. 

The Blood carries the vital elements derived from 
the food to all the organs and tissues, keeping them 
alive and actively functioning. It also carries waste 
products to the skin, lungs, kidneys, and intestines 
for elimination. 

FACTORS INFLUENCING DIGESTION 

As before stated, it is not the food eaten, but that 
which the body digests and assimilates, or appropri- 
ates to its needs, which counts. Many factors influ- 
ence such nourishment. The principal aids are a 
forceful circulation, the plentiful breathing of oxygen, 
and free elimination. 

_ h If one has no appetite, we have been 

Appetite told in the past to abstain from food until 
the system calls for it, or to eat but a very 
little of the lightest food at regular meal times. This 
is right, but it deals with the effect and not the cause 
of the lack of appetite. 

The chances are that this lack is due to retained 
waste. Whenever there is too much waste in the 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 161 

system, the chances are that the digestive organs 
will not call for more food, and when the appetite is 
lacking the effort should be made to see that the 
system is thoroughly clean. Every muscle and tissue 
must be relieved of the excess of waste. The cor- 
rection of the lack of appetite, then, is not only ab- 
stinence from food, but brisk exercise, plenty of fresh 
air in the lungs, free drinking of water, and the elimi- 
nation of the waste through the intestines, skin, lungs, 
and kidneys. 

One should not be led into forming the habit of 
irregular eating, however. The stomach forms habits 
and the supply of food must be regular, just as the 
nursing child must be fed regularly, or digestive dis- 
turbance is sure to result. 

Care should be taken not to eat between meals nor 
to eat candy or indigestible foods. 

The lack of appetite may be due to mental pre- 
occupation which does not let the brain relax long 
enough for the physical needs to assert themselves. 
One should relax the brain in pleasant thought during 
the meal. 

But the chief thing to bear in mind is to create the 
demand for food by relieving the system of its waste, 
by calling for more supply to the muscles through 
exercise, and by giving the system plenty of oxygen 
through deep breathing. 

The appetite is partly under control of the will 
and may be trained. It is more or less capricious 
and may be satisfied with little, or it may demand 
large amounts of food. Grief or worry will destroy 
it, as will foul air, and overfatigue. 

A voracious appetite may be due to an irritation 
of the nerves of the stomach or to a disturbance of 



162 What to Eat and When 

digestion of one kind or another. This is shown by 
the fact that sometimes those with abnormal appe- 
tites are thin and undernourished because of non- 
digestion of the food. If the food is eaten slowly and 
well chewed, the desire for too great an amount will 
be lessened. The food will also be better digested. 

The chalk-eating, clay-eating, salt-eating habits 
are well known. The desire is largely mental and 
may be treated by substituting healthful thoughts 
for morbid longings, and changing the monotonous 
or restricted diet for one more liberal. 

If the appetite is lacking because of physical exhaus- 
tion, it is unwise to eat, because the digestive organs 
are tired, and to load a tired stomach with food, still 
further weakens it and results in indigestion. The 
better plan is to drink two glasses of cold water and 
lie down for an hour. 

Lack of appetite and the taste for highly seasoned 
food may come from a monotonous diet or one that 
does not contain sufficient coarse food or sufficient 
water to stimulate peristalsis; the result is stagna- 
tion and constipation, with the disorders that follow 
in its train. The monotonous diet, from its effect on 
the mind, results in lack of desire for food. Both the 
condition and the appetite are often stimulated and 
changed by a greater variety in the kinds of food. 

Care should be taken not to form the habit of using 
stimulants too freely, particularly with children. 

Condiments and stimulants, used to make the food 
"appetizing," unduly stimulate the nerves, and per- 
vert the natural taste, and foods containing their 
natural amount of spices or extractives no longer 
tempt one. Those whose nerves are highly keyed, 
form the habit of seasoning the food too highly. 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 163 

This undue stimulation calls for more food at the time 
of eating than a normal appetite would demand. 
The taste being cultivated for the stimulant, the 
habit of eating too much food is formed. 

A wise provision of Nature makes the system, in a 
normal condition, its own regulator, protesting against 
food when it has not assimilated or eliminated that 
consumed. One should learn to obey such protests and 
cut down the quantity when Nature calls "enough," 
and exercise to eliminate waste, thus creating a better 
assimilation. Nature does not call for more food 
until she has eliminated the excess of waste. 

There are exceptions, however. Some phases of 
indigestion cause a gnawing sensation in the stom- 
ach which is often mistaken for a desire for food. 
This is not a normal appetite. Water will usually 
relieve it. 

Often loss of appetite is the result of a clogging of 
the intestines or liver, or is due to an excess of bile, 
which, not having been properly discharged into the 
intestines, has entered the blood stream or regurgi- 
tated into the stomach. A torpid liver often expresses 
itself in a dull mental force, the toxins deadening the 
nerve cells. 

The lack of desire for exercise of those living in 
warm climates results in a sluggish activity of the 
system. As a result it demands less food, and habits 
of excessive seasoning to stimulate the appetite have 
been formed. 

The desire for excessive stimulants, such as salt, 
may be a cultivated taste and the habit should be 
corrected. 

There is a difference between the cultivated and the 
normal appetite. A child rarely shows a desire for 



164 What to Eat and When 

stimulants such as tea or coffee, excessive salt, pepper, 
pickles, catsups, etc., unless unwisely encouraged by 
an adult, who does it, not because it is food for the 
child, but because the individual himself has cultivated 
a taste for it. 

It is as easy to form healthful tastes and habits of 
eating as unheal! hful ones, and care should especially 
be exercised over the formation of healthful habits 
in the growing child. 

One should not allow himself to become "finicky" 
or no food will give him its best service. 

Time, energy, muscular activity, nerve force, and 
money are spent in combining, seasoning, and cook- 
ing foods in such a manner as often to render them 
difficult of digestion. 

Let me repeat for emphasis — when the appetite 
wanes, deep breathing of fresh air to supply an abund- 
ance of oxygen to oxidize the waste, thus putting it in 
condition to be expelled from the system, brisk exercise 
to accelerate the circulation, that the blood may carry 
the oxygen freely and that the tissues may liberate the 
carbon dioxid and other waste, and a copious drinking 
of water, are the best tonics for loss of appetite or for a 
lack of vitality. 

The food required by the body varies 
Cli ate according to the season of the year and the 
temperature. Thus, during cold weather, 
the body craves hot foods and drinks, and the heavier 
foods which furnish more heat-producing elements. 
In summer, the lighter foods, fruits, and the proteins 
supplied in green vegetables instead of in meats, are 
relished, and cold foods and drinks are desired as aids 
in equalizing the heat of the body. The total amount 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 165 

of food taken in summer may be lessened because so 
much food is not required to maintain the body heat 
and energy. The lessened amount puts less strain 
on the digestive system. 

Owing to the increased perspiration, the desire for 
water is greater in summer, while in winter or in cool 
weather, from the opposite condition, the quantity of 
water taken is usually insufficient. 

In travel, when one shifts with more or less rapidity 
from one temperature to another, the diet should not 
be altered too greatly or too suddenly; the system 
must be allowed time to accommodate itself to the 
change. 

The occupation must be taken into consideration. 
Great muscular activity requires a more liberal diet 
than a sedentary habit, no matter what the climate 
may be. 

Certain tribes that inhabit the tropics subsist 
almost entirely on meat, while many of the inhabit- 
ants of Russia and Norway live on breadstuffs almost 
to the exclusion of meat. 

It is quite obvious that the food should 

A.Z.6 

vary according to the body needs. The 
needs of the adult, the child, and the infant vary. 
The baby may not take the food which is required 
by the child from the age of three to ten, and the 
aged, not exercising vigorously, does not need the 
hearty food of the growing child or the active adult. 
The need for food depends, however, on activity 
more than on years. 

It is more difficult to make those in middle and 
old age, who are not active, realize that the body no 
longer needs so much food, due to the fact that it is 



166 What to Eat and When 

not so actively building tissue, and that an oversupply 
causes a serious tax on the digestive system . It brings 
in its train ills which might easily be avoided by 
simpler habits and a little study of the actual needs 
of the body. 

More food than the activity of the system demands, 
taken in later or middle life, causes most of the diseases 
which afflict this period. Obesity, arteriosclerosis, 
liver disease, gastro-intestinal diseases, biliousness, 
kidney diseases, gout, and allied conditions, can all 
be traced to an overtaxed digestive system, with 
faulty elimination and weakened organs. These 
show the rebellion of Nature at being compelled to 
work overtime. 

While these diseases are most frequent after forty, 
the condition of the system which designates age 
is not always measured by years. 

In the ordinary individual who has allowed himself 
to sit and become lazy in his habit of life, certain 
changes in the system occur and the body needs less 
food than is required in more active life. There are # 
not such heavy calls on reserves for repair, either of 
nerve force or of material. 

Unless active exercises and interests have been kept 
up, the muscular system begins to deteriorate, the 
heart action is slower, and there is a lessening of nerve 
tone. Relaxation of the digestive and intestinal organs 
occurs, peristalsis is less vigorous, and the glands be- 
come less active, owing to the lessened call for energy. 
From this cause, unless the amount of food is reduced 
in proportion to the body needs, constipation and 
other digestive derangements may result. 

If one stops physical and mental activity at any 
age, the vital forces recede, muscles and vital organs 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 167 

become weak and inactive, and the waste of the system 
is not fully eliminated. Such a man at thirty or forty 
is physically and mentally older than the man who is 
in active business or is taking daily vigorous exercise, 
at seventy or eighty. The latter may follow the same 
diet which he followed at fifty, while the former 
should follow the diet of the old man who has stopped 
active work. 

Young men who through excessive drafts on their 
vitality have exhausted their forces often act and 
look twice their years. For these the diet should be 
simple, easily digested, and nutritious, and often 
reduced in quantity. 

Formerly it was thought that at fifty years of age a 
man or a woman was on the down-hill slope; they 
were considered " aged." Owing to the discoveries of 
scientific tests of the condition of arteries and vital 
organs, it is now known that years do not play so 
large a part in the matter of age. 

A man or a woman at fifty, who is in vigorous mental 
and physical health, is in the prime of life, while many 
from twenty-five to thirty, who have dissipated their 
vital forces, may be said to have entered the age of 
decrepitude. The saying, " Man is as old as his 
arteries," should be expanded to " Man is as old as 
his tissues." 

People have thought too long that age is a matter 
of years. They need to be aroused to recognize the 
fact that the condition of age is a matter of health of 
body and mind; that the spirit, which sees to it 
that the body which it inhabits is kept vigorous and 
strong by healthful and happy thoughts and an active 
interest in the world's affairs, is " young," no matter 
what the years number. Optimism and cheer keep 



168 What to Eat and When 

one young; pessimism and habits of mental depression 
age one. 

One of the encouraging signs of the times is that 
more and more people are learning to know that their 
activities need not be given up because they have 
reached a certain age. If the children which formerly 
needed care, have grown and gone to homes of their 
own, the activities of the mother and father are freed 
to find vent in other directions. If children no longer 
need immediate care, the parents have time to make 
better conditions for the children of others less for- 
tunate. They should interest themselves in public 
questions that affect these children and their own, 
indirectly if not directly. New life and strength 
have been found by many by changing their activities 
and keeping the thoughts young and the interest 
vivid. The body will respond marvelously to the 
mandates of the inner self. 

There is no doubt that the habit of eating 

a l *? governs one's convictions of what the 

of Eating system requires. One is inclined to think 

that a desire for a food is a requirement of 

Nature; yet it may simply be the continuation of a 

habit due to indigestion. 

Chronic abnormal functioning of the organs, such 
as is seen in indigestion, constipation, sluggish liver, 
etc., are physical habits. 

If a mother feeds her babe every three hours the 
child will usually wake and call for food about this 
period. If she has formed the habit of nursing the 
child every two hours, it will call for food in about 
two hours, even though all symptoms indicate that 
the child is overfed. 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 169 

It is important that both child and adult establish 
regular and hygienic habits because the digestive 
juices secrete themselves at the regular periods estab- 
lished. A right habit is as easily formed, and as difficult 
to change, as a wrong one. 

If one forms the habit of eating a certain amount of 
food, the stomach calls for about the same amount, 
and when one first begins to change the quantity it 
protests, whether the change be to eat more or less. 

Few people form the habit of drinking sufficient 
water, particularly if they have been taught that 
water at meals is injurious. In this busy life, few 
remember to stop work and drink water between 
meals, and if not consumed at the meal time the 
system suffers. Many people look /'dried up. " 

The habit of drinking two glasses of water on first 
arising, and six or eight more during the day is an 
important one. 

There is no doubt that a large number of people 
constantly overload the digestive organs. This, as 
well as the bolting of food, insufficiently masticated, 
cannot be too strongly denounced. All food should 
be chewed to a pulp before being swallowed. 

To avoid overeating, many theorists 
are advocating two meals a day. - Meals 

When two meals a day are eaten, the first 
meal should be at nine or ten o'clock in the morning 
and the second meal at five or six o'clock in the after- 
noon; whereas, for the average person who eats two 
meals a day, this custom means that he goes without 
food until the midday meal and then eats two meals 
within six hours, with nothing more for eighteen 
hours. 



170 What to Eat and When 

The argument in favor of two meals a day has been 
that the digestive system is inactive during sleep, 
and, therefore, it is not ready for a meal on arising. 
Pawlow's experiments, however, show that digestion 
continues during sleep, though less actively; and it 
must be borne in mind that the average evening meal 
is eaten about six o'clock and that there are about 
four waking hours between this meal and the sleep 
period; also, that the average individual is awake and 
moderately active an hour before the morning meal. 
This gives five waking hours between the evening and 
the morning meal. About the same time, five hours, 
elapses between the morning and the midday meal, 
and between the midday and the evening meal, so 
that three meals a day divide the digestion periods 
about evenly. If the amount of food supplied by 
two meals seems to be sufficient for the needs of the 
individual, and it is not practical to eat at the hours 
stated, then omit the midday meal. 

In the strain of business life, returning at once to 
work, after the eating of a heavy meal in the middle 
of the day, calls all of the surplus blood to the brain; 
this, in many cases, results disastrously. For this 
reason, the taking of the heavy meal at night, when 
the system may relax and time be given to proper 
digestion, has come to be an institution of city life. 

More frequent meals, served in lighter quantity 
with greater regularity, so that the system is not 
overloaded at any one meal, is rational for delicate 
or undernourished nerves and tissues. 

The reason invalids or those whose digestive organs 
are delicate should have the heaviest meal at midday, 
is because the vigor of the system is greater at this 
time than later in the day; the increased temperature 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 171 

in fever in the late afternoon retards assimilation. 
Those whose digestive organs are delicate should not 
be confined to three meals a day if less food taken 
oftener is better borne and assimilated, but the meals 
should be at regular times. 

Food is stored in the muscles for imme- 
diate use when needed. If all of the food Effect of 
supplied to the muscles is not used for B ... 
their daily needs, an excess accumulates on Digestion 
unless the muscles are exercised sufficiently 
to use up the supply. A constant accumulation 
results in obesity. This condition, by overlaying the 
organs with fat, compresses them and hampers their 
activity. If the accumulation continues it ultimately 
causes a degeneration of the tissues. Apoplexy occurs 
in those carrying an excess of fat due to a weakening 
of the walls of the arteries of the brain. 

The blood, owing to variations in the external 
temperature, has a tendency to retreat from the skin 
through contraction of the capillaries and to engorge 
the internal organs. Exercise brings the blood to the 
skin and muscles, causing the waste, broken down by 
the chemical activity going on every instant of life, 
to be picked up by the blood and carried to the elimi- 
nating organs. Therefore, since the blood is needed 
in the digestive organs during digestion, active exercise 
should not be taken immediately after meals. 

Exercise taken in the proper amount and at proper 
times uses up the excess of material, benefits digestion, 
aids the work of the liver and intestines, keeps the 
circulation active, the waste eliminated, and results 
in a feeling of vigor and fitness for one's work whether 
physical or mental. 



172 What to Eat and When 

Exercise should be counted as a necessary part of 
one's daily activities — as necessary as eating one's 
meals. If faithfully done the habit will be formed and 
the system will soon call for exercise as it does for 
food. 

The young child's blood circulates freely, his breath- 
ing is unrestricted, the waste of the system is fully 
burned up, potential energy is released, and the result 
is, he must be active. The effort of the teacher, or 
of those having the care of children should be, not to 
restrain the child but rather to direct his activity in 
advantageous and effective use of his energy. 

A little child is an object lesson in alternating exer- 
cise, sleep, and food. Almost every waking moment 
a child is squirming, twisting, and turning, using every 
muscle of his little body, particularly every vital 
organ. No excess of waste accumulates in his tissues. 
The adult does not, as a rule, twist or turn or freely 
stretch the muscles of the vital organs. The child 
and the animal stretch and yawn to start the circu- 
lation whenever they awaken from sleep. This is 
instinct — Nature's law. Man jumps out of bed and 
begins dressing with mind bent on the business of the 
day. 

The necessity of oxygen is evident. The body will 
subsist about forty days on the food stored within 
it without resupply, but it can endure only a few 
seconds without oxygen, because heat, occasioned by 
the chemical action of oxygen, is necessary to keep 
up the physical activity termed "life." Carbon 
dioxid (carbonic acid gas) accumulates and poisons 
the system. 

The necessity of habits of full, correct breathing cannot 
be too fully emphasized. 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 173 

The quantity of oxygen daily consumed should 
equal the sum of all other food elements. 1 

Oxygen is necessary in the combustion of fats, 
starches, and sugars, as it is necessary in the combus- 
tion of carbon in wood or coal, and, as explained on 
pages 123 and 124, oxygen is necessary to keep the 
body warm. 

Deep breathing aids digestion and assimilation, 
not only because of the regular exercise given to the 
pancreas, the spleen, the stomach, and the liver by 
the correct movement of the diaphragm, but also 
because of the latent heat which the oxygen liberates 
within the digestive organs and out among the tissues. 

While the chemical action of food creates activity 
within, this activity is materially aided by exercise. 
Exercise and oxygen are also necessary for chemical 
action in tearing down waste and in putting raw 
material into condition to be appropriated to the body 
needs. 

Two glasses of water in the morning and fifteen 
minutes of brisk exercise in well-selected movements, 
to start a forceful circulation and to surge the water 
through the digestive organs, are a daily necessity if one 
is to keep clean and strong within. 

Exercises should be interspersed with deep breathing 
of pure air. 

In breathing guard against drawing up the chest; 
make the muscular effort, while practicing full breath- 
ing, to expand the entire rib cage, back, front, and side. 

It is as important to cleanse the body within as with- 

1 Editor's Note: — Measurements of seventy thousand women 
show that sixty- two per cent, of women use only about one-half 
of their lung capacity and less than nine per cent, use their full 
capacity. 



174 What to Eat and When 

out. It is the method employed by all men and women 
who would retain strong vital forces to a ripe old age. 
They fully enjoy the mere living. 

, . It is of the utmost importance that one 

not only forms the habit of correct, full 
breathing, but also sees to it that the air in the home, 
or in the place of business, is pure. A window opened 
at the top and bottom is essential in any place of 
business — or at least a draft through the room. 

There should be plenty of circulating air in the 
sleeping room. Many restless nights are due to 
stagnant air. 

Teachers find that when they keep their school- 
rooms well ventilated the children are less restless, their 
minds are more alert, they more quickly comprehend 
what is said to them, and that both they and the 
children are much less fatigued at the end of the day. 

Proper ventilation, and proper exercise have so defi- 
nite a bearing on the condition of the body which we 
term "tired" that this subject properly follows. 

Since the condition of the body in fatigue 

ty tarh A so ma terially affects the digestion, absorp- 

Balance ^ on ' an( ^ assimilation of food, as well as 

the elimination of waste, it is not amiss to 

discuss it here. 

The habit of eating when overfatigued is almost 
sure to result in indigestion. Muscular or mental 
activity has called the blood away from the digestive 
organs and enough time has not elapsed to restore the 
equilibrium. The digestive organs are not in condi- 
tion to take care of the food promptly and fermenta- 
tion begins. 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 175 

A few minutes of active exercise and deep breathing 
for the brain worker, or a half -hour of rest after muscu- 
lar activity, will equalize the circulation and restore 
the blood to the stomach and intestines. 

People fail to remember that the amount of blood 
in the body is a fixed quantity, and if an excess of it 
is called to one portion, the supply is lessened to other 
portions. 

The regular work of the body in keeping up the 
heart action and the circulation requires a certain 
amount of energy produced by a certain amount of 
oxidized foodstuffs. The system in normal condition, 
with normal breathing, readily furnishes this energy. 
If more than the normal amount is used in increased 
work, greater combustion is necessary. The extra 
amount of waste which has been liberated by this extra 
work must also be carried away. If combustion docs 
not take place, the extra energy is not supplied, and that 
required for the constant bodily needs is called on. 

If the waste is not removed from the system and 
the energy not resupplied to the parts doing the extra 
work, the muscles, nerves, and tissues are then in the 
state termed "tired." They remain so until the 
circulation has carried the waste to the eliminating 
organs and has brought more foodstuffs to the tissues, 
thus restoring more energy than is needed for the 
work constantly going on in the body. 

It must be remembered that for combustion oxygen 
is required and if undue energy is necessary deep 
breathing is imperative. 

The relief, then, from the state of the body we call 
fatigue is in equalizing the circulation through exercise 
or rest, according to the occupation, and supplying 
oxygen through full breathing. This more forceful 



176 What to Eat and When 

circulation calls the blood from the unduly distended 
capillaries, removes the waste, and brings a new supply 
of energy-building foodstuffs. 

In mental work, the nerves and the brain call for 
the surplus energy, while in muscular work the tissues 
require it, hence undue work, either mental or physi- 
cal, expresses itself in bodily fatigue, until the demand 
in all parts of the body is equalized. 

When equilibrium is restored, the body is "rested." 

The relief from fatigue due to mental activity is 
in exercise and deep breathing. 

Carbon dioxid dulls the nerves of sensation and the 
brain action and may produce more or less stupor. 
It may be because the circulation in some part of the 
body is sluggish (most often the portal circulation 
through the liver), so that sufficient oxygen is not 
carried to that part. 

Relief from this "inertness" is experienced most 
quickly by exercise to quicken the circulation and 
supply the oxygen. Exercise in one's room by the 
open window, or at least with the air in the room pure, 
is often preferable to outdoor exercise, because the 
body can be nude, or so loosely clothed that the oxy- 
gen may not only enter the lungs but also circulate 
about the skin. 

Fifteen minutes of brisk exercise in one's room is 
better than a five-mile walk, because if the exercises 
are intelligently selected, every organ and tissue is 
used, while walking exercises only about one-fourth 
of the muscles. 

After sleeping in a room in which the air is impure, 
one arises fatigued, because the supply of oxygen is 
insufficient to liberate the energy required for circula- 
tion and catabolism. 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 177 

Harmony, either mental or physical, is rest. 

With a little more intelligence in keeping up the 
supply of oxygen, in establishing correct breathing 
habits, and in understanding the law of distribution of 
circulation, which means the harmony of forces, this 
tired world could not only draw a deep, restful breath, 
but would be invigorated to enjoy life to the full. 

During sleep all the processes of the 
body are retarded. 

Blood flow and breathing become slower and the 
digestive processes slacken. For this reason, if one 
goes to bed immediately after eating a heavy meal, 
digestion is retarded. This may react on the nerves, 
producing fitful or unrestful sleep. Fever or night- 
mare may result. The annoying, sleepy feeling which 
often comes on after a meal indicates a lack of balance 
in the system — usually that more food has been eaten 
than the body requires. Lessening the amount of 
food and increasing the exercise and the oxygen, and 
cleansing the intestinal tract will prevent it. 

On the other hand, if the alimentary tract is entirely 
empty, sleep may not come because there is too much 
blood in the brain. A glass of hot milk or cocoa, or a 
couple of crackers, will call the blood to the stomach 
and will often aid sleep. 

After eating a heavy meal, from three to three and 
a half hours should elapse before retiring for sleep. 

The state of mind has much to do with 
regulating the digestive system. Cheerful ^^ ° d 
thoughts keep the nerves of the entire 
organism in a normal state, while disagreeable thoughts 
cause a tense, unnatural condition. 



178 What to Eat and When 

The nerves of the digestive organs are affected by 
the tenseness of the mind, just as are the nerves to 
any other part of the body. As an illustration, if 
one continuously thinks ugly, disagreeable thoughts, 
these thoughts affect the chemical activities of diges- 
tion and assimilation, resulting in an excess of acid 
in the blood, and actual illness results. Digestion 
and assimilation being impaired, the tissues become 
weakened, they lose their resistance, and, as a result, 
the organs may prolapse. We then have what is 
called a "vicious circle"— the mind affects the body 
unpleasantly and the body the mind. 

We are learning to consider many factors in looking 
for the causes of disease, particularly those due to 
general weakness, or a disturbed mental state. Even 
the temper shown in a crying babe may affect its 
digestion by disturbing the normal chemical activity. 

Among the blood and digestive disturbances which 
may result from anxiety, worry, fear, or disagreeable 
thoughts, are anemia, neurasthenia, indigestion, 
constipation, prolapsed viscera, and, in fact, all 
diseases which result from faulty nutrition and result- 
ant weakened tissues. 

Disagreeable thoughts affect the appetite, in fact 
they sometimes cause it to be entirely lost. 

All so-called "new thought," "ologies," or "isms," 
conducive to the formation of the habit of looking 
on the bright side of life, or of looking for good and 
joy in life, of kindness, love, and helpfulness, favorably 
affect the digestion and consequently the health. 
The practice is Christian Sense. 

The nerves control the peristaltic movements of 
the stomach and the action of the absorptive cells, as 
well as the cells which secrete the digestive juices. 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 179 

Thus it is that a food which one likes is not only more 
palatable, but it will also digest more readily, the 
digestive juices flowing more freely because of the 
mental stimulus. 

It is well, therefore, to begin the meal with some- 
thing especially appetizing, that the flow of the diges- 
tive juices may be incited. For this reason, if one 
cares for fruit, it is an excellent custom to begin the 
meal with fruit, or with a well-made soup, containing 
protein extractives, which will stimulate the flow of 
digestive juices. 

The habit of finishing a meal with some tasty des- 
sert is based on the scientific principle that its palat- 
ability will cause the gastric juices to flow more 
freely after the meal, thus aiding in its digestion. 

Dainty service in a sick-room, because of the psychic 
effect of a meal daintily served, is of utmost import- 
ance. Because of the effect on the mind, the sight of 
a meal served on soiled linen will almost stop the 
flow of gastric juice and will destroy the desire for 
food, while a meal well served on dainty linen, with 
garnishings and tasteful table decorations, incites 
the flow of gastric juices. 

The careful wife and mother, who notes any failure 
of appetite in members of her family, should attend 
carefully to the garnishing of her dishes and to serving 
them in a neat, attractive manner; also to changing 
her table decorations, so far as may be consistent 
that the eye as well as the sense of smell and taste 
may be pleased and the effect of the mind on digestion 
be exerted. 

It is strange, but it is true, that a fresh flower, or a 
new table decoration, may so pleasantly affect one 
afflicted with nervous indigestion that the meal more 



180 What to Eat and When 

readily digests, while an untidy table, or a lot of food 
served untidily will retard digestion. 

The custom, among hearty eaters, of serving a 
plate too plentifully, destroys the appetite of one 
whose digestion is not so active. Our grandmother's 
overloaded table, with sufficient food of various kinds 
to serve many times the number of participants, 
might stimulate the appetite of hearty, strong men, 
but the very sight of so much might turn the appetite 
of one more delicate. 

The mind must be relaxed and directed to pleasant 
themes during a meal or the condition of the nerves 
of the digestive organs will not permit a free secretion 
of digestive juices. Chronic indigestion is sure to 
result from this practice. Dinner, or the hearty meal 
at night, rather than at noon, is preferable for the 
business or professional man or woman, because the 
cares of the day are over and the brain force relaxes. 
The vital forces are not detracted from the work of 
digestion. 

Foods which are forced down, with a mind arrayed 
against them, do not digest so readily, because the 
dislike hinders the flow of the gastric juices. Any 
food fails of prompt digestion when the nerves con- 
trolling the stomach are acting feebly; however, 
while they digest more slowly during mental protest, 
they do nourish the system. 

Likes and dislikes are largely mental. Certain 
foods continuously disagree and they should be 
avoided; but many abstain from wholesome food 
because it has disagreed a, few times. It may be that 
it was not the particular food but the weakness of the 
stomach at the time. 

Many foods disagree at certain times because of the 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 181 

particular conditions regulating the secretion of 
digestive juices. When this condition has continued 
for some time it becomes chronic and a special diet 
is required, together with special exercises, to bring a 
better blood supply to stomach and intestines and to 
regulate the nerves controlling them, in order to 
correct the abnormality. 

One may so form the habit of criticism or of being 
disgruntled or thinking he cannot eat this food and 
that, that his entire system suffers. Much indigestion 
is more mental than physical. 

It can be readily seen that any tissue, 
playing so important a part in digestion as - *. 

the blood, needs to be kept in as nearly circulation 
perfect condition as possible. A vigorous 
circulation stimulates digestion; a poor circulation 
retards it. 

If the blood is poor in quality the digestive organs 
are not nourished and the digestive secretions are 
lessened in quantity and quality. 

If the blood is imperfectly aerated it carries an 
insufficient supply of oxygen, combustion is lessened, 
and the waste, not being in a condition to be removed, 
remains in the tissues, stagnation results, and a slow 
poisoning process goes on which gradually causes the 
system to fail to meet the demands made on it. 

The blood tissue can only be kept in condition by 
an adequate but not excessive amount of good food 
taken at the proper time, and such active exercise 
as will thoroughly aerate the blood by bringing the 
air to the smallest air cells in the lungs. 

If one would fight to prevent the money used in 
daily exchange from being debased, he ought to be 



1 82 What to Eat and When 

much more ready to use every means in his power to 
prevent a deterioration of the blood, that medium of 
exchange in his body on which such vital issues depend. 

Tobacco and alcohol are two substances 
acco which, in excess, materially retard digestion. 
Alcohol ^he e ^ ec ^ °f tobacco on the stomach is 

shown by its action on the small boy with 
his first cigar. Habituated to its use, the nerves 
become blunted and the nicotin narcotizes them. 
The use of tobacco renders the sense of taste less deli- 
cate, due to the action of the nicotin on the nerves of 
the taste buds. Men who use tobacco in excess miss 
the pleasures of taste; all food tastes much alike to 
them. 

Tobacco, due to its action on the vagus nerve, 
many times causes disorders both of circulation and 
digestion. The starches are usual^r not well digested 
by those who are habitual users of tobacco. 

Smoking before meals or when the stomach is 
empty often occasions nausea. 

Because of its narcotic action it often exerts a 
soothing influence particularly in men of highly ner- 
vous temperament who are unwilling to take the 
necessary exercise to equalize nerve activity. 

It was formerly held by physiologists that alcohol 
was a food, because its oxidation liberates heat, and 
it was assumed that this liberation of heat was the 
same as that freed by the combustion of fats, starches, 
and sugars uniting with oxygen. More recent knowl- 
edge, however, has unquestionably determined that 
the body decomposes alcohol into carbon dioxid and 
water, thus liberating heat, yet the reaction produces 
cold and the body requires more heat to warm it. 



Conditions Affecting Digestion 183 

The blood-vessels of the skin dilate from over- 
stimulation, and heat is radiated faster than it is 
generated, so that the temperature of the body is really 
lowered though alcohol gives a sensation of heat. 
The body, therefore, loses the power to resist cold. 

It was formerly used by physicians for its supposed 
stimulant action, but it has been determined that the 
apparent stimulant effect is due to irritation of the 
nerves, particularly of the nerves of the stomach; 
the temporary spur to activity is followed, however, 
by depression of the body forces. 

The habitual use of alcohol, from overstimulation 
of the nervous system, affects this system, deranging 
it permanently, gradually lowering both mental and 
physical ability, and causing a catarrhal condition of 
the stomach and intestines. 

Alcohol, therefore, even in small quantities, is a 
poison, and not a food. 

In certain conditions it may be used in emergency 
to spur a flagging or failing organism to action, but 
owing to the facility with which the alcohol habit is 
acquired its use should not be continued beyond 
the period when its immediate action is deemed 
necessary. 

Because tobacco and alcohol are both poisons, the 
healthy organism has no need of them. The diseased 
or deranged organism can often find greater benefit 
from natural remedies than from the artificial stimuli 
of these substances. 

It is a known fact that far more men than women 
suffer from dyspepsia. One reason for this may be 
found in the prevalent habit of spitting. Smokers, 
in whom the irritation of the nicotin causes an excess 
of saliva, often suffer from gastric troubles, because 



1 84 What to Eat and When 

they expectorate, thus wasting this valuable digestive 
juice. 

Aside from the filthiness of the habit, which has 
caused laws to be enacted against it, one would think 
that a little reflection would cause those addicted to 
it to consider what it means to their health. Over- 
stimulation means weakened salivary glands, impaired 
secretion, and consequent lessened digestive power. 
For the sake of their own health if not from 
motives of decency, men should abandon the habit of 
expectorating. 



CHAPTER VII 

COOKING 

THE question of the proper selection and cooking 
of food is so vital to the health and resultant 
happiness of every family, and to the strength and well 
being of a nation, that every one to whom cooking is 
entrusted should have special preparation for the 
work. Every girl should be given practical and 
thorough training in dietetics in our public schools. 
The study is as dignified as the study of music and 
art. Indeed it can be made an art in the highest 
conception of the term. Surely the education of 
every girl in the vocation in which she sooner or later 
may engage, either actively or by directing others, 
means more than education in music and drawing. 

We must all eat two and three times every day; 
there are few things which we do so regularly and 
which are so vital ; yet in the past we have given this 
subject less study than any common branch in our 
schools. When the dignity of the profession of 
dietetics is realized, the servant problem will be 
largely solved. 

The wholesome cooking of food is as important as 
its selection, because the manner of cooking makes it 
easier or more difficult of digestion. 

The necessity of a thorough education in this regard 
185 



186 What to Eat and When 

is recognized by men who follow cooking as a profes- 
sion, and a regular apprenticeship must be served be- 
fore a cook is recognized as proficient. He can then 
command good wages. 

In cooking any food, heat and moisture are neces- 
sary, the time needed varying from thirty minutes to 
several hours. Baked beans, and meats containing 
much connective tissue, as boiling and roasting cuts, 
require the longest time. 

The purposes in the cooking of foods are : 

To develop the flavor which makes the food 
appetizing, thus encouraging the flow of gastric 
juice ; 

To sterilize, thereby killing all parasites and 
microorganisms, such as the tapeworm in beef, 
pork, and mutton, and the trichinae in pork; 

To convert the nutrients into a more digestible 
form, by partially or wholly converting the con- 
nective tissue into gelatin. 
According to the variety and kind, food may be 
roasted, broiled, boiled, stewed, baked, steamed, or 
fried. 

The fundamental principle to be ob- 
f M t served in the cooking of meat concerns 
the retention of the juices, since these 
contain a large part of the nutriment. The heat 
develops the flavor, and the moisture together with 
the heat dissolves the connective tissue and makes it 
tender. 

A choice piece of meat may be toughened and made 

difficult of digestion, or a tough piece may be made 

tender and easy to digest, by the manner of cooking. 

Soups. To make meat soups, the connective tissue, 



Cooking 187 

bone and muscle should be put into cold water, brought 
slowly to the boiling point, and allowed to simmer for 
several hours. 

It must be remembered that the gelatin from this 
connective tissue does not contain the tissue-building 
elements of the albuminoids. These are retained in 
the meat and about the bones of the boiling piece. 

The albumin of meat is largely in the blood and it 
is the coagulated blood which forms the scum on 
soup. Soup should cook slowly, or much of the 
nutrition is lost in the coagulated blood, or scum. 

If a soup containing nutrition is desired, it must be 
made from boiling meat, connective tissue, and bone 
with marrow. 

While bouillons and prepared cubes contain very 
little nutriment they contain the extractives, and the 
flavors increase the flow of digestive juices and stimu- 
late the appetite. It is for this reason that soups 
are served before a meal ; when they are relished, they 
aid a copious flow of gastric juice and saliva. 

Many mistake the extractives and flavor for nour- 
ishment, thinking that soups are an easy method of 
taking food, but the best part of the nutriment re- 
mains in the meat or vegetables from which the 
soup is made, and unless one desires merely the stim- 
ulating effect, bread or crackers should supply the 
nourishment. 

If soup meat is used in hashes the lost nutritive 
material in the form of gelatinoids and extractives 
may be restored by adding to it a cup of rich soup stock. 

In preparing Beef Tea, the meat should be finely 
minced, placed in a mason jar, and a very little cold 
water added. It should stand an hour or two to aid 
in the extraction of the albumin. The jar should be 



1 88 What to Eat and When 

then placed in a kettle of water which should be kept 
at the boiling point for two hours. In this way none 
of the nutriment is lost. Beef tea, if properly pre- 
pared and only the juice is used, is expensive, but 
when concentrated nourishment is necessary, cost 
should not figure. 

The beef teas made from cubes contain the ex- 
tractives and are appetizers, but they contain very 
little if any nutrition. 

Roasting. Roasting and broiling of meats are the 
most universally used methods. The savage as well 
as civilized man prepares his meat by direct applica- 
tion of heat without water. 

In roasting or broiling the meat is subjected sud- 
denly to a high temperature which coagulates the albu- 
min of the outer layers and prevents the escape of 
the juices. For this reason the oven should be thor- 
oughly hot before the roast is put in. Unless the 
heat is sufficient to sear the surface, the moisture, or 
juice, will escape and the connective tissue will be 
toughened. 

The roast should be turned as soon as one side is 
seared and just enough water added to prevent it from 
burning. 

It is important to remember that the smaller the 
cut to be roasted, the hotter should be the fire. An 
intensely hot fire coagulates the exterior and prevents 
the drying up of the meat juice. After the surface 
is coagulated and seared , to prevent the evaporation 
of its juices, the roast should be covered so as to cook 
more slowly to prevent too great hardening of the 
surface. 

Frequent basting of a roast with the fat, juice, and 
water in the roasting pan, still further sears the sur- 



Cooking 189 

face so that the juices do not seep through, and keeps 
the air in the pan moist ; the heated moisture materially 
assists in gelatinizing the connective tissue. Roasting 
pans are now made which are self-basting. 

Raising the temperature of the juices subjects the 
inner portions of the meat to moist heat and it is thus 
stewed in its own juices. The retention of these 
juices and of the extractives adds to the flavor and the 
palatability . 

Roasted or broiled meats, if properly cooked, are 
more readily digested and they are usually most 
relished because their flavor is better retained. 

Pot Roasts. For a pot roast, the meat should be 
well seared in fat, then a small amount of water added, 
and the meat cooked slowly at about 180 F., until 
done. A fireless cooker is excellent for this as for any 
other food needing to be slowly cooked. The juices 
seep out in the water and form a rich gravy which 
should be served with the meat. 

Broiling. The same principle of quickly searing 
the surface applies to broiling. In broiling, however, 
the heat is applied direct, because the process is 
quicker. The meat is placed over a very hot flame 
or hot coals and both sides quickly seared to prevent 
the juice from escaping. 

The object of the direct application of the heat is 
to enable it to quickly penetrate to the center of the 
chop or steak so as to coagulate the albumin and pre- 
vent the escape of the water. Meat intended for 
broiling should be cut at least an inch thick, as other- 
wise it becomes too hard and dry in the process of 
broiling. 

Meat containing much connective tissue, such as 
the neck, chuck, and rump, is not adapted to broiling, 



190 What to Eat and When 

because it takes too long for this tissue to become 
gelatinized. It may be pan broiled, a little water 
added, and cooked slowly until done. Prepared in 
this way it is cheap, nourishing, and palatable. 

Steak broiled in a skillet, especially round steak 
which has been pounded to assist in breaking the 
connective tissue, is often first dipped in seasoned 
flour, which is well worked into it. The flour ab- 
sorbs the meat juices so that none of them are lost. 

When broiling meats in a skillet the skillet must be 
very hot before the meat is placed on it, and as soon 
as one surface of the meat is seared, it should be 
turned to sear the other side. The skillet should be 
kept covered so as to retain the moisture. 

Boiling. One important fact, too frequently over- 
looked, or, perhaps, not known by many cooks, is 
that when water has reached the boiling point its 
temperature cannot be further raised by increasing the 
heat applied. The addition of heat only increases 
the production of steam and causes the water to 
''boil away." Therefore as soon as the water has 
begun to boil the gas may be turned down or the fire 
kept at just the level necessary to maintain the boiling. 
The food cooks just as soon and the fuel bills are 
lowered. Hard boiling has no greater effect on any 
food than moderate boiling. 

When boiled meat is intended to be eaten — not 
merely boiled for soup — the water should be boiling 
when the meat is placed in it in order that the albumin 
on the surface may be immediately coagulated and 
prevent the escape of the nutrients into the water. 
It is impossible to make a rich broth and to have a 
juicy, highly flavored piece of boiled meat at the 
same time. 



Cooking 191 

Meats used for boiling contain more connective 
tissue, therefore they require much longer cooking 
in order to gelatinize this tissue. They are not as 
rich in protein as are steaks. 

Meat "shrinks" in boiling because of the escape 
of the water in the tissues into the water in which it 
is boiled. Meat may thus lose one-fourth to one- 
third of its weight and bulk. 

Stewing. This differs from boiling in that the 
temperature is lower and the meat or vegetables are 
cut in pieces so that the water may come in contact 
with more of the surface thus aiding in the extraction 
of the juices. 

The scum, which appears on the surface of a stew, 
is usually skimmed off and, as in the case of soups, 
much nutrition is lost. It should be retained, as it 
will disappear when the stew is thickened. It is usu- 
ally removed from beef tea in order that it may not 
offend the eye or the capricious appetite of an invalid. 

Stews should be covered and should not be cooked 
in too much water, as the juices are weakened and 
too great an amount of flour is necessary to thicken 
them, thus rendering them less digestible. They are 
cooked slowly at low temperature (130 to 160 F.) 
and so do not need much water. 

If properly made, stews are both economical and 
nutritious, as no nutrition is lost in evaporation and 
all material save bone or gristle is utilized. 

Baking. Meats, when baked, are covered with a 
crust, either of batter or pastry. This prevents the 
escape of the volatile matters, and meats thus cooked 
are richer, especially if they contain much fat. For 
this reason they are seldom suitable for invalids, or 
for those who have any form of stomach trouble. 



192 What to Eat and When 

Steaming. This method of cooking is applied 
mainly to vegetables, puddings, etc. Steamed pud- 
dings and dumplings are softer than when baked. 
The cover must not be removed during the time of 
steaming, or they may become soggy, hence less 
digestible. 

Frying. This is the least desirable method of cook- 
ing. If a lighted match is placed near the smoke of 
superheated fat the fat will catch fire, showing that it 
is volatilizing, or being reduced to a vapor. 

The extreme heat liberates fatty acids which soak 
into the food and render it difficult of digestion. It 
is wise not to employ this method of cooking unless 
the food is completely immersed in the hot fat by 
means of a wire basket. This facilitates its removal 
with greater ease. The surface albumin is coagulated 
more quickly when the food is submerged, thus pre- 
venting it from soaking up too great an amount of fat. 

Deep-fat cooking requires close watching and for 
this reason most cooks use a skillet. Unless the 
skillet is very hot and the meat is turned frequently, 
the meat juices are lost both by evaporation and by 
the meat adhering to the pan. 

In cooking in deep fat, if not left too long and if 
the fat is at the right heat, the meat fibers do not 
soak up the fat, because the water in the tissues is so 
rapidly turned to steam that the fat cannot enter; 
the interior thus cooks in its own juices as in roasting 
or broiling. Fish or chops fried in deep fat are palat- 
able and of high flavor. Boiled fish, however, if the 
water is well salted to prevent too great softening, is 
better for invalids, as it is more easily digested. 

Fish fried whole in deep fat may have the skin 
removed after frying. The fish fibers are thus not 



Cooking 193 

brought into contact with the fat. Special utensils 
for frying fish in this way may now be obtained. 

Fats are readily absorbed in their natural condition, 
but, if changed by extreme heat, they are irritants. 

For digestibility, therefore, boiled, broiled, and roasted 
foods are preferable to foods cooked in fats. 

Such food as fried potatoes, mush, eggs, French 
toast, and griddle cakes, cooked by putting a little 
grease into a frying pan, are more diffiailt of digestion 
than foods cooked by any other means, particularly 
when the fat is heated so that it smokes. 

One safe rule is to cook most foods too 
much rather than too little; overcooking °° ' ns ° 
is uncommon and harmless, while under- 
cooked foods are common and difficult of digestion. 

All partially cooked cereal foods should be cooked 
at least as long as specified in the directions. 

One reason why breakfast foods, such as rolled 
oats, are partially cooked by the manufacturer, is 
because they keep longer. 

As has been stated, the nutrients of the grain are 
found inside the starch-bearing and other cells, and 
the walls of these cells are made of crude fiber, on 
which the digestive juices have little effect. Unless 
the cell walls are broken down, the nutrients can not 
come under the influence of the digestive juices until 
the digestive organs have expended material and 
energy in getting at them. Crushing the grain in 
mills and making it still finer by thorough mastica- 
tion breaks many of the cell walls, and the action of 
the saliva and other digestive juices also disintegrates 
them more or less, but the heat of cooking accom- 
plishes the object much more thoroughly. 
13 



194 What to Eat and When 

The invisible moisture in the cells expands under 
the action of heat, and the cell walls burst. The 
water added in cooking also plays an important part 
in softening and rupturing them. The cellulose or 
cell wall is also changed by heat to a more soluble 
form. Heat makes the starch in the cells at least 
partially soluble, especially when water is present. 

The solubility of the protein is probably, as a rule, 
somewhat lessened by cooking, especially at higher 
temperatures. Long, slow cooking is therefore better, 
as it breaks down the crude fiber and changes the 
starch to a soluble form without materially decreasing 
the solubility of the protein. 

The fireless cooker is particularly desirable in the 
cooking of cereals. 

In experiments made with rolled oats at the Minnesota Ex- 
periment Station, it appeared that cooking (four hours) did not 
make the starch much more soluble. However, it so changed the 
physical structure of the grains that a given amount of digestive 
ferment could render much more of it soluble in a given time 
than when it was cooked for only half an hour. 

On the basis of the results obtained, the difficulty commonly 
experienced in digesting imperfectly cooked oatmeal was attri- 
buted to the large amounts of glutinous material which surrounds 
the starch grains and prevent their disintegration. When thor- 
oughly cooked the protecting action of the mucilaginous protein 
is overcome, and the compound starch granules are sufficiently 
disintegrated to allow the digestive juices to act. In other words 
the increased digestibility of the thoroughly cooked cereal is 
supposed to be largely due to a physical change in the carbo- 
hydrates, which renders them more susceptible to the action of 
digestive juices. 

Pastry. Pastry is usually difficult of digestion 
because the fat it contains interferes with the proper 
solution of the starch. The objectionable features 



Cooking 195 

apply to such pastry as is made by rubbing fat into 
flour, as in pie crust, crust for meat pies, apple dump- 
lings, etc. It does not apply to most puddings. 
Butter or fat is used in cakes, cookies, etc., but it is 
not rubbed into the flour; it is mixed with sugar and 
eggs which hold it in suspension until the flour is 
acted on by the liquids. 

The coating of the starch granules with fat prevents 
them from coming in contact with liquids. The fat 
does not furnish sufficient water to enable the cells 
to swell and dissolve the cell wall and so coats the 
starch granules as to prevent them from absorbing 
water in mixing, or saliva in mastication. This 
coating of fat is not removed until late in the 
process of digestion, or until the food reaches the 
intestines. 

The same objection applies to rich gravies, unless 
the flour is dissolved in water and heated before 
being mixed with the fats. 

Pastry and biscuits require a somewhat hotter 
temperature than bread, because the process of cook- 
ing consumes less time. 

Since the root vegetables contain a 
large proportion of carbohydrates, they v . £ 
should be well cooked, in order that the 
crude fiber may be broken and the cells fully dissolved. 
Most vegetables are unpalatable and indigestible 
unless, by the cooking process, the starch granules 
are broken. 

Vegetables are best cooked in soft water as lime 
or magnesia, the chemical ingredients which make 
water "hard," make the vegetables less soluble. 

Vegetables and fruits become contaminated with the 



196 What to Eat and When 

eggs of numerous parasites from the fertilizers used; 
hence they should be thoroughly washed. 

The objections to frying are as strong in regard to 
vegetables as to meats. The coating of fat retards 
digestion, as shown on page 195. 

The objection to frying does not hold so strongly 
in the case of vegetables, such as potatoes, if fried 
slowly in fat that is not overheated, or to griddle cakes 
cooked slowly without smoke. It does apply, how- 
ever, if the fat is sufficiently heated to smoke. 

The coating of vegetables and cereals with fat pre- 
vents the necessary action of saliva on the starch 
globules. As previously stated, starch digestion is 
begun in the mouth and continued for a short time in 
the stomach, while the fats are not emulsified until 
they reach the intestine. 

The starch granules in cereals and vegetables are 
in cells, the covering of which is composed largely of 
nitrogenous matter. The protein is not acted on by 
the saliva, and the nitrogenous matter is largely 
digested in the stomach. It is more easily dissolved 
if it is broken or softened by cooking, so that the 
carbohydrates can come in contact with the saliva, 
but if encased in fat, the gastric juices cannot digest 
the protein covering and the saliva cannot reach the 
starch until the fat is emulsified in the intestines. 
This means that whenever starch globules are sur- 
rounded with fat, the digestive ferments reach these 
globules with difficulty and foods improperly fried 
must be digested mostly in the intestines. For this 
reason, eggs, poached or boiled, are more easily 
digested than when fried. 

Vegetables and fruits of most sorts may be baked 
and are usually rendered more digestible by the process. 



Cooking 197 

Tubers of all sorts, if to be cooked by boiling, should 
be put on the fire in cold water. The gradual heating 
of the water allows the tuber to become warmed 
through before boiling begins and the interior and 
exterior thus are completely cooked about the same 
time. If placed in boiling water, the exterior, being 
cooked before the interior, particularly when vegeta- 
bles are peeled before cooking, either separates, as in 
potatoes, making them "mushy," or the vegetables 
are served with the interior not thoroughly cooked. 

Vegetables will cook as quickly and more evenly 
in water kept just at the boiling point as in water 
that is boiling hard. 

All pods, seeds, or leaves, as in green vegetables, 
should be put in boiling water that none of the nutri- 
tive material may be lost and that the cooking action 
may be quickly begun. 

Opinions differ markedly regarding the 

relative wholesomeness of raw and cooked ° ^ g ° 

Fruit 
fruit. Europeans use comparatively little 

raw fruit, it being considered less wholesome than 

cooked fruit. In the United States, raw fruit is 

considered extremely wholesome, and is used in very 

large quantities; it is relished quite as much as cooked 

fruit, if indeed it is not preferred to it. 

It has been suggested that the European prejudice 
against raw fruit may be an unconscious protest 
against unsanitary methods of marketing or handling 
and the recognition of cooking as a practical method 
of preventing the spread of disease by fruit soiled 
with fertilizers or with street dust. If the cooking 
is thorough, it insures sterilization. 

As with all vegetable foods, the heat of cooking 



198 What to Eat and When 

dissolves the fiber in the cell walls. The moisture 
causes the cell contents to expand and rupture the 
walls. The change in texture occasioned by cooking 
renders it softer, more palatable, and more readily 
acted on by the digestive juices. This is obviously 
of more importance with the fruits like the quince, 
which 'is so hard that it is unpalatable raw, than it is 
with soft fruits like strawberries. 

Cooking in water extracts so little of the nutritive 
material present in fruit that such removal of nutri- 
tion is of no practical importance unless the amount 
of water used is excessive. Because they contain 
much water fruits should be cooked in as little water 
as may be necessary to prevent them from burning. 

The idea is quite generally held that cooking fruit changes its 
acid content, acid being sometimes increased and sometimes 
decreased by the cooking process. Kelhofer showed that when 
gooseberries were cooked with sugar, the acid content was not 
materially changed, these results being in accord with his con- 
clusions reached in earlier studies with other fruits. The sweeter 
taste of the cooked product he believed to be simply due to the 
fact that sugar masks the flavor of the acid. 

It is often noted that cooked fruits, such as plums, seem much 
sourer than the raw fruit, and it has been suggested that either 
the acid was increased or the sugar was decreased by the cooking 
process. This problem was studied by Sutherst, and, in his 
opinion, the increased acid flavor is due to the fact that cooked 
fruit (gooseberries, currants, plums, etc.) usually contains the 
skin, which is commonly rejected if the fruit is eaten raw. The 
skin is more acid than the simpler carbohydrates united to form 
a complex carbohydrate. 

In some fruits, like the apple, where the jelly-yielding material 
must be extracted with hot water, the pectin is apparently united 
with cellulose as a part of the solid pulp. As shown by the 
investigations of Bigelow and Gore at the Bureau of Chemistry, 
forty per cent, of the solid material of apple pulp may be thus 
extracted with hot water, and consists of two carbohydrates, 



Cooking 199 

one of which is closely related to gum arabic. That such carbo- 
hydrates as these should yield a jelly is not surprising when 
we remember that they are similar to starch in their chemical 
nature, and, as everyone knows, starch, though insoluble in 
cold water, yields when cooked with hot water a large proportion 
of paste, which jellies on cooling. 

When fruits are used for making pies, puddings, etc., the nutri- 
tive value of the dish is, of course, increased by the addition of 
flour, sugar, etc., and the dish as a whole may constitute a better 
balanced food than the fruit alone. x 

1 C. F. Langworthy, Ph.D. — In charge of Nutritive Investiga- 
tions of the United States Experiment Station. 



CHAPTER VIII 

FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF THE SYSTEM 

AS previously stated, the object of foods is: 
To supply the needs of the body in building 
new tissue as in the growing child. 

To repair tissue which the catabolic activity 
of the body is constantly tearing down and 
eliminating; and 

To supply heat and energy. 
The heat and energy are not alone for muscular 
activity in exercise or movement. It must be kept in 
mind also that the body is a busy workshop, or chem- 
ical laboratory, and heat and energy are needed in the 
constant metabolism of tearing down and rebuilding 
tissue and in the work of digestion and elimination. 

In this chapter, a few points given in the preceding 
pages are repeated for emphasis. 

The proteins represented in purest form in lean meat 
build tissue, and the carbonaceous foods, starches, 
sugars, and fats, supply the heat and energy. 

An excess of proteins, that is, more than is needed for 
building and repair, is also used for heat and energy. 
The waste products of the nitrogenous foods are 
broken down into carbon dioxid, sulphates, phos- 
phates, and other nitrogenous compounds, and ex- 
creted through the kidneys, skin, and the bile, while the 

200 



Food Requirements of the System 201 

waste product of carbonaceous foods is largely carbon 
dioxid and is excreted mostly through the lungs. 

Since the foods richest in protein are the most 
expensive, those who wish to keep down the cost of 
living, should provide, at most, no more protein 
than the system requires. Expensive meats may be 
eliminated and proteins be supplied by eggs, milk, 
legumes, and nuts. 

The fundamental thing is to decide on the amount 
of protein — two to four ounces, nearly a quarter of a 
pound a day — and then select a dietary which shall 
provide this and also supply heat and energy sufficient 
for the day. 

If the diet is to include meat, a goodly proportion 
of protein will be furnished in the lean meat. This 
will vary greatly with the different cuts of meat, as 
shown in Table IV, page 54. If, as often happens, 
one does not care for fats, then the starches and 
sugars must provide the heat. If much sugar is 
eaten less starches and fats are needed. 

The normally healthy individual is more liable to 
take too much protein than too little, even though he 
abstain from meat. 

If the diet is to include meat, it will be of less bulk, 
because the protein is more condensed; for the same 
reason, if it includes animal products of eggs and milk 
and a fair proportion of legumes, it will be less bulky 
than a vegetable diet. Yet unless vegetables, fruits, 
and plenty of water are consumed one must guard 
against constipation. This point is important for 
busy people who eat their meals in a hurry and 
proceed at once to active mental work. 

Those who engage in physical labor are much more 
likely to take a complete rest for a half-hour, or an 



202 What to Eat and When 

hour, after eating. The thinkers seldom rest, at least 
after a midday meal, and those who worry seldom re- 
lax the mental force during any waking hour; their 
brains are as active as those of mental workers. 

Every housewife, to intelligently select the daily 
menus for her family, needs a thorough knowledge 
of dietetics. She must understand the chemistry 
of food that she may know food values. 

The difficulty which confronts the housewife is to 
provide a meal suited to the needs, tastes, or idiosyn- 
crasies of the various members of her household. 
Peculiarities of taste, unless these peculiarities have 
been intelligently acquired, may result in digestive 
disturbances. As an illustration: one may cultivate 
a dislike for meat, milk, or eggs, as is often the case, 
and if the proteins for the family is largely supplied 
by these, the individual who omits them from the 
meal, eats too large a proportion of starches and 
sugars, and not sufficient protein — legumes, nuts, 
etc. If this is long continued the blood becomes 
impoverished and anemia is produced. 

The relief lies in cultivating a taste for all foods. 

In active work, more heat is liberated, thus more 
fat, starches, and sugar are required for the resupply. 
As previously stated, if an excess of starch (glycogen) 
is stored in the liver, or an excess of fat in the tissues, 
this excess is called on to supply the heat and energy 
when the fats and carbohydrates daily consumed are 
not sufficient for the day's demands. This is the 
principle in reduction of flesh. 

It is interesting to note that habits of combining foods 
are, perhaps unconsciously, based on dietetic principles. 

Meats, rich in protein, are served with potatoes 
or with rice, both of which are rich in starch. 



Food Requirements of the System 203 

Bread, containing little fat, is served with butter. 

Beans, containing little fat, are cooked with pork. 

Starchy foods of all kinds are served with butter 
or cream. 

Macaroni, which is rich in starch, makes a well- 
balanced food when served with cheese. 

Pork and beans, bread and butter, bread and milk, 
chicken and rice, macaroni and cheese, poached eggs 
on toast, and custards, form balanced foods. 

A knowledge of such combinations is important 
when one must eat a hasty luncheon and wishes to 
supply the demands of the body in the least time, 
giving the least thought to the selection; but hasty 
luncheons, with the mind concentrated on other 
things, are to be strongly condemned. 
! It has been estimated that the average daily need 
of the adult is forty-five ounces of solid food, one- 
fourth animal and three-fourths vegetable. Twice 
as much water as solids should be taken. 

The laborer, engaged in heavy muscular activity, 
needs and can assimilate more than the sedentary office 
worker. Those who work but a few hours a day require 
less food, as a rule, than those who work long hours. 

Cold weather demands more heat-producing foods ; 
a hot climate, inducing inactivity of body, diminishes 
the need for food. 

The invalid needs less food than the healthy. 

The inhabitant of the frigid zone needs much fat; 
he who lives in the tropics but little fat. 

The old need less food than the growing youth or 
the hearty adult. 

The poor must often take what he can get while 
the rich eat to satiety. Yet all these food needs vary 
with the individual and with the sex and activity. 



204 What to Eat and When 

It has been computed that the system needs daily 
three hundred grains of nitrogen and four thousand eight 
hundred grains of carbon. To obtain this amount of 
nitrogen if bread alone were eaten it would require four 
pounds of bread from the whole wheat. The carbon in 
this amount of bread largely exceeds that required. If 
eaten alone, six pounds of beef would be necessary to 
supply the proper amount of carbon, and twenty-three 
pounds of eggs. The nitrogen in this amount would 
far exceed the requirement. 

One pint of milk, 2^ ounces of bread, and six 
ounces of beef are about equal in nutritive value. 

One can see, therefore, why a diet composed of too 
great a quantity of one substance gives an overbalance 
of one and an underbalance of another. 

Therefore, it is more economical to use some fat 
and sugar in the diet and less meat. More vegetables, 
perhaps, and more fluid should be taken by many. 

Authorities vary in their estimates of the amount 
of food required by the individual. It varies with 
the activity, the season, the age, the sex, and it varies 
in the same individual on different days. 

Billings estimates that the daily diet of a healthy, 
hard-working man should contain: 20 ounces {\% 
pounds) of lean meat; 22 ounces, about i}/£ pounds or 
i}/% loaves of baker's bread; 10 ounces or about 4 
medium sized potatoes; and several glasses of fluid. 
Since the fluid should be twice the amount of solids, 
this would mean about 12 glasses. 

Others compute that the amount of food weighed 
dry, needed by the average person of sedentary habits, 
is as follows: For breakfast, 8 ounces; for luncheon, 
6 ounces; for dinner, 9 ounces, with 48 ounces or 3 
glasses of water. These two give extremes. 



Food Requirements of the System 205 

In active persons from 3 to 3>^' ounces (about one- 
fourth of a pound) of nitrogenous food will replace 
the nitrogen lost from the body. One ounce (iK<$ of 
the ordinary brick) of butter a day supplies the neces- 
sary fat, and about 15 to 20 ounces (1 to i}i pounds) 
of carbohydrate are required. 

According to Thompson, from two to three pints 
of urine are excreted each day ; ten ounces of water are 
lost by the lungs, and eighteen ounces are evaporated 
from the skin. This amount, about eighty ounces or 
ten glasses, must be replaced daily to maintain the 
body in its equilibrium of supply and demand. A 
part of this is supplied in the food. 

These figures may be altered somewhat according 
to the individual or the climate as previously men- 
tioned, but they constitute a fair average. 

Dr. W. S. Hall estimates that the average man at 
light work requires, 

each day 106.8 grams of protein 1 
57.97 grams of fat 
398.84 grams of carbohydrates 

These elements, in proper proportions, may be 
gained through many food combinations. He gives 
the following as an example : 

Bread 1 lb. 

Lean Meat yi " 

Oysters yi " 

Cocoa 1 oz. 

Milk 4 ozs. 

Sugar 1 oz. 

Butter % " 

1 For table of weights see pages 357~359« 



206 What to Eat and When 

A medium-sized man at out-of-door work, fully 
oxidizes all waste of the system and he requires a 
higher protein diet — 1 25 grams. In such event he does 
not require so much starch and sugar. If, on the 
other hand, he were to take but 106.8 grams of protein, 
as above, he would require more carbohydrates. 
One working or exercising in the fresh air breathes 
more deeply and oxidizes and eliminates more waste, 
hence he has a better appetite, which is simply the 
call of nature for replacing the waste. 

Experiments in the quantity of food actually re- 
quired for body needs, made by Prof. R. H. Chitten- 
den, of the Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University, 
have established, beyond doubt, the fact that the 
average individual consumes very much more food 
than the system requires. In fact, most tables of food 
requirements, in books on dietetics, are heavy, yet 
the amount of food required as a result of Professor 
Chittenden's experiments would seem to be too light 
for a continuous diet. 

Professor Chittenden especially established the 
fact that the average person consumes more protein 
than is necessary to maintain a nitrogenous balance. 
It was formerly held that the average daily metabol- 
ism and excretion of nitrogen through the kidneys 
was sixteen grams, or proportionate to about one 
hundred grams of protein or albuminoid food. 

Professor Chittenden's tests, covering a period of 
six months, shows an average daily excretion of 
5.86 grams of nitrogen, or a little less than one-third 
of that formerly accepted as necessary; 5.86 grams 
of nitrogen corresponds to 36.62 grams of protein or 
albuminoid food. 

Professor Chittenden's experiments concerning the 



Food Requirements of the System 207 

amount of foodstuffs actually required by three groups 
of men, one group of United States soldiers, a group 
from the Yale College athletic team, and a group of 
college professors, all showed that the men retained 
full strength, with a higher degree of physical and 
mental efficiency, when the body was not supplied 
with more protein than was liberated by metabolic 
activity, and when the quantity of carbonaceous food 
was regulated to the actual requirements for body 
heat and energy. 

It may be well to call attention here to the fact 
that most of the food elements, called on for work, 
are not derived from those foods just consumed or 
digested, but from those eaten a day or two previous, 
which have been assimilated in the muscular tissues. 

Dr. W. S. Hall gives the rations for different condi- 
tions, as shown in the following tables : 

TABLE XI 

Rations in Different Conditions 













CONDITIONS 


Proteins 


Fats 


hydrates 


Energy in 
Calories 




Low 
60 


High 
IOO 




Low 


High 
450 


Man at light indoor work 


60 


390 


2764 


Man at light outdoor work 


60 


IOO 


IOO 


400 


460 


2940 


Man at moderate outdoor 














work 


75 


125 


125 


450 


500 


3475 


Man at hard outdoor work 


100 


150 


150 


500 


550 


4000 


Man at very hard outdoor 














winter work 


125 


180 


200 


600 


650 


4592 


U. S. Army rations 


64 


106 


280 


460 


540 


4896-5032 


U. S. Navy rations 




143 


292 


557 




5545 


Football team (old regime) 




181 


292 


557 




5697 


College football team (new) 


125 


125 


125 


500 




3675 



208 



What to Eat and When 



TABLE XII 
Rations Varied for Sex and Age 



VARIATIONS OF SEX AND 
AGE 



Children, two to six 
Children, six to fifteen 
Women with light exercise 
Women at moderate work 
Aged women 
Aged men 



Proteins 


Fats 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Low 


High 


Low 


High 


36 


70 


40 


250 


325 


50 


75 


45 


325 


350 


50 


80 


80 


300 


330 


60 


92 


80 


4OO 


432 


50 


80 


50 


270 


300 


50 


100 


400 


300 


350 



Energy in 
Calories 



1520-1956 

1923-2 123 

2272 

2720 

1870 

2258 



The unit of measurement for the calories of energy 
is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature 
of one kilogram of water from zero to i° centigrade 
or 4 Fahrenheit. 

In estimating the number of calories of energy 
given off by the different foods, Dr. Hall represents 

I gram of carbohydrates as 4.0 calories 
I " " fats " 9.4 " 

I " " proteins " 4.0 " 

To determine the relative energy which a food 
represents, it is only necessary to multiply the number 
of grams of protein in that food by 4, the fat by 9.4, 
and the carbohydrates by 4, and add the results. 

Thus according to the food required for the average 
man at light work given on page 225 : 



106.8 grams of proteins x 4 = 427.20 calories of energy 

57.97 " " fat x 9.4 = 544.94 " " " 

398.84 " " carbohydrates x 4 = 1595.36 " " " 

2567.51 =the calories of 
energy required for the average man at light work. 



Food Requirements of the System 209 

TABLE XIII 

The following gives a balanced supply for a day 
according to the preceding tabulation : 

Amount of Food Calories 

2 tablespoonfuls fruit with sugar 55 

2 eggs 140 

yi pound lean meat (protein) 243 

I pound bread 1206 

}4 pint soup 307 

1 tablespoonful cocoa 135 

2 potatoes (average size) 100 

% pint of milk 150 

2 pats butter (1 cubic inch) 119 

2 tablespoonfuls sugar 112 

2567 

Dr. Chittenden's experiments would indicate that 
a man leading a very active life, and above the aver- 
age in body weight, can maintain his body in equi- 
librium indefinitely with a daily intake of thirty-six 
to forty grams of protein, or albuminoid food, with a 
total fuel value of 1600 calories. 

In order to bring oneself to as limited a diet as 
Professor Chittenden's men followed, however, it 
would be necessary to have all food weighed so as to 
be sure of the correct proportions ; otherwise the actual 
needs would not be supplied and the body would 
suffer. 

It is a question whether the men with whom he 
experimented could have followed so limited a diet 
for an indefinite period. 

As stated, however, authorities differ on the amount 
of food required. 
14 



21 o What to Eat and When 

Dr. Hall suggests 106 grams of protein 

Ranke suggests ioo grams of protein 

Hultgren and Landergren suggest 134 grams of protein 

Schmidt suggests 105 grams of protein 

Forster and Moleschott suggest 130 grams of protein 

Atwater suggests 125 grams of protein 

A wise provision of Nature enables the body to 
throw off an excess of food above its needs without 
injury, within limitations; but, as stated, there is no 
doubt that the average person exceeds these limits, 
exhausting the digestive organs and loading the 
system with more than it can eliminate; the capacity 
for mental work becomes restricted, and the whole sys- 
tem suffers. 

Mixed Diet From the fact that only from two to four 
versus a ounces of nitrogenous food are required to 
Vegetarian rebuild daily tissue waste, it is apparent that 
Diet this amount can readily be supplied from 

the vegetable kingdom, since nuts, legumes, 
and cereals are rich in proteins; yet there is a question 
whether a purely vegetable diet is productive of the 
highest physical and mental development. Natives 
of tropical climates live on vegetables, fruits, and 
nuts, and it may be purely accidental, or be due to 
climatic or other conditions, that these nations have 
not made the greatest progress. Neither have the 
Eskimos, who live almost entirely on meat, attained 
the highest development. 

The greatest progress and development, both as 
nations and as individuals, have been made by inhab- 
itants of temperate climates, who have lived on a 
mixed diet of meat, eggs, milk, grains, vegetables, 
fruits, and nuts. They have shown more creative 
force, which means reserve strength. 



Food Requirements of the System 211 

The Eskimo has demonstrated, however, that a 
diet of meat alone supplies all physical needs; the 
meat tissue providing growth and repair and the fat 
supplying all of the carbonaceous elements. The 
fat, as previously stated, yields more heat than 
starches and sugars, and Nature provides this heat for 
climates in which most warmth is required. This 
may be the reason why natives of warm climates 
have formed the habit of using vegetables and grains 
for their heat and energy rather than meat. It is 
also the natural reason why man in temperate clim- 
ates eats more meat in winter than in summer. 

An unperverted, natural instinct will alwa}^s be 
found to have a sound physiological basis. For ex- 
ample, if, by reason of some digestive disturbance, 
one has become emaciated, all of the fat having been 
consumed, and the cause of the disturbance is removed 
by an operation or otherwise, one is seized with an 
almost insatiable desire for fat, often eating large 
chunks of the fat of meat or large quantities of but- 
ter or cream at a meal. When obstructions are re- 
moved, Nature makes immediate effort to readjust her 
forces. 

Those who object to eating meat should study care- 
fully to learn if the proper proportion of protein is 
supplied with each day's rations. The legumes — 
peas, beans, nuts, and grains — must be supplied. 
While the wheat kernel contains twelve per cent, 
of protein, the white flour does not contain as large 
a percentage and it will be noted by reference to 
Tables II and III, that the majority of fruits and 
vegetables contain little nitrogenous substance. 

Unless the whole of the grain and the legumes form 
a goodly proportion of the diet the danger is in con- 



212 What to Eat and When 

suming too large a bulk of waste and too much starch 
in a purely vegetable diet. 

In a vegetarian diet, one is liable to eat too freely 
of cereals; as a result, the liver becomes clogged and 
torpid and the stomach and intestines are deranged 
and rendered incapable of full digestion and absorp- 
tion. The clogged system refuses to assimilate more 
food. 

It follows, therefore, that, unless one is a thorough 
student of dietetics, the mixed diet is by far the safest 
to follow. 

One can better run short of starch or fat in one 
day's rations than to be short of protein, because if the 
two or four ounces daily requirement is not provided 
the tissues are consumed and the blood is impover- 
ished. It is a rare condition in which a reserve of 
glycogen and fat is not stored in the system. On the 
other hand, an excess of nitrogenous foods calls for a 
very active circulation and plenty of oxygen in the 
system . 

It has been held that the vegetarian has a clearer 
brain, and, if this be true, it may be due to the fact 
that he is not eating too much and thus his system is 
not overloaded. 

Experience, however, does not prove that he has 
greater mental, physical, and moral power and effi- 
ciency. 

In fasting, likewise, the mental power is at first 
clear and forceful, but the reason becomes unbalanced 
if the fast be too prolonged. 

A complete diet may be selected without animal flesh, 
but including animal products of eggs, milk, cream, and 
butter, together with vegetables, fruits, cereals, and nuts, 
yet, if the vegetable diet be selected, the legumes, the 



Food Requirements of the System 213 

whole of the grains, and nuts, must be given their share 
in each day's rations. 

Each year sees an increase in the number 
of travelers. The question of diet many Traveling 
times is of great importance. For those of 
abundant means the question is simplified, oftentimes, 
by the railway dining-car service, but for those who 
from economic reasons must patronize the wayside 
railway restaurants or other eating places, the diet 
question is not so easily solved. 

A carefully planned lunch-box is often an aid to 
the preservation of regular habits and a preventative 
of digestive disturbances, due to a sudden and radical 
change of diet. 

The inactivity and sedentary habit enforced by a 
long journey, in which there is small chance for exer- 
cise, generally causes constipation. The shaking of 
the boat or train also aids this, as it interrupts normal 
peristalsis. The motion of the boat or train often 
produces nausea and vomiting and thus deranges the 
digestive organs. 

Greasy or illy prepared food hastily eaten at a 
lunch counter provokes various gastric and intestinal 
ills. 

The danger of infected or polluted water complicates 
the problem, especially when the sick or infants are 
involved. Many an attack of typhoid fever has 
been traced to the drinking water used during a 
vacation trip. 

The invention of the vacuum bottle has solved one 
need of the traveler. The invention of the electric 
heater has solved another. 

Sterilized and cooled milk may be carried by means 



214 What to Eat and When 

of the vacuum bottle for use with children or the sick, 
and the portable stove will enable the boiling and 
sterilizing of water, when a larger supply is needed 
than can be carried in a vacuum bottle. By its means, 
also, a hot drink can be prepared for the aged, the 
invalid, or other individual, when necessary, as in an 
emergency. 

All fried and greasy food and unripe fruits should 
be avoided. 

One had better lessen the amount of food than 
suffer the gastric difficulties occasioned by too much 
fatty food. 

Hard whole wheat crackers with fruit and milk can 
be had at almost any eating house. These give a 
well-balanced meal and are often preferable to pre- 
pared dishes. Fresh fruit, especially the acid fruits, 
should form a large part of the diet. 

The traveler, on extended journeys, should always 
provide some of the easily carried condensed foods, 
so that if the food obtained by the way is unpalatable 
or illy prepared, or in case food is unobtainable, the 
needs of the system may be met. Beef meal, whole 
wheat or oatmeal crackers, malted milk, chocolate, 
meat extracts, etc., occupy little space and may often 
prove invaluable. 

Tablets of soda and also of lime are easily carried 
and may be used when soda water or lime water is 
needed as in nausea or indigestion. 

If it is possible, the water drunk while traveling 
should be boiled. 

The bowels must be kept active and fresh fruits 
and water are the best aids in accomplishing this. 

The remedies recommended for car sickness or sea- 
sickness are legion; what is an aid in one case is al- 



Food Requirements of the System 215 

most or quite without avail in another. Lemon juice 
or a slice of lemon in the mouth is generally of most 
avail, though lime water in some cases has proven of 
service. Attacks can often be mitigated or avoided 
by not starting on a journey when overtired, by light 
eating for several days previous to beginning a journey, 
with care in securing good elimination and plenty of 
fresh air. 

If traveling by boat a reclining chair on deck is far 
preferable to lying in a berth in a stuffy stateroom. 

Nausea can often be prevented or remedied by deep 
breathing or by the sipping of hot water with a little 
soda. 



CHAPTER IX 

DIETS 

r\EFORE giving any diets, let me first of all impress 
L-J the importance of eating slowly, of good cheer, of 
light conversation during a meal, and of thoroughly 
masticating the food. Remember it is the food assimi- 
lated which nourishes. 

The following diets allow sufficient food for aver- 
age conditions, when the vital organs are normal. 

Fruit, as previously stated, contains a very small 
quantity of nutrition. It is more valuable for its 
diuretic effect, and to stimulate the appetite; for this 
reason it may well be eaten before a meal. 

The citrus fruits tend to neutralize too high acidity 
of the blood, increasing its alkalinity. For this reason, 
also, they are best before a meal, particularly before 
breakfast; they have a more laxative and cleansing 
effect if eaten before the other food. The custom 
has been, however, to eat fruits after dinner for dessert 
and they arc so given in the following menus. 

Table XI (page 207) gives the total amount of pro- 
tein, carbohydrate, and fat needed daily for the work 
of the body. The method of determining the number 
of calories produced by each variety of food is also 
given on page 208. 

By a little study of the food one ordinarily eats in 
216 



Diets 217 

connection with this tabulation and the tables given 
on pages 233 to 241, it can be determined whether the 
food taken each day is well or illy balanced and 
whether one is eating too much or not enough. 

Table XIII (page 209) gives the balanced supply 
for a day of the most commonly used foods and may 
be consulted as a basis from which to work in con- 
structing balanced meals. 

Because of the wide variation in methods of pre- 
paring food in the home, an exact and absolute stand- 
ard cannot be fixed. 

All foods contain combinations of mineral salts, 
particularly calcium (lime), sodium, magnesium, and 
potassium. In each food, however, some mineral 
predominates. For instance, potatoes contain both 
calcium and potassium but the potassium content is 
larger than the calcium. For this reason when potas- 
sium salts are needed in a diet, potatoes and other 
potassium-containing foods make a valuable contri- 
bution. When potassium needs to be limited these 
foods should be omitted from the diet. When cal- 
cium is needed, as in growing children, calcium-con- 
taining foods should be made a large part of the 
diet. 

In conditions of health the construction of a bal- 
anced diet is a comparatively simple matter. In con- 
ditions of disease, however, the question of diet is 
often one that can only be solved by a skilled dietitian, 
after a chemical analysis. Unfortunately, the number 
of these in the United States is not large and their 
services are not available in many cases in which 
they are needed. 

A diet in which the acid-forming elements are in 
excess will ultimately result in a lessening of the alka- 



218 What to Eat and When 

linity of the blood. The blood then, to maintain its 
balance, withdraws alkaline substances from the 
tissues. A balance must, therefore, be maintained 
between the acid and alkaline foods. This has a 
bearing on scurvy and also in gout. 

Foods which are called acid, that is, they tend to 
lessen the normal alkalinity of the blood, are, oats, 
barley, beef, wheat, eggs, rice, and maize. When the 
proportion of acid in the blood is too great the supply 
of these foods should be lessened. 

Alkaline foods, or those which leave no acid residue, 
are carrots, turnips, potatoes, onions, milk, blood, 
peas, lemon and orange juice, and beans. These 
may be used when there is too much acid in the 
system. 

Neutral foods are sugar, the vegetable oils, and 
animal fats. 

All the content of the foods must be taken into 
consideration in building a diet, the carbohydrate, fat, 
and protein being considered as well as the mineral. 
A consideration of the mineral content, however, 
should not be neglected. One-eighth grain of iron 
is taken daily in the ordinary mixed diet. The fact 
that in one quart of milk, according to Hutchinson, 
there are ^2 grains of calcium shows how valuable 
this food is to the growing child for bone and tissue 
building. It must also be considered when con- 
stipation results from a milk diet. Milk and its 
derivatives are poor in iron, while meat, fish, pota- 
toes, fruits, and bread are poor in calcium. Animal 
foods are rich in sodium; vegetables and fruits in 
potassium. 

The following shows the foods which contain 
mineral salts, in larger proportions. 



Diets 



219 



Calcium 
(lime) 



Milk contains i}4 grams of lime (calcium) in 
every quart; next in lime content come eggs, 
then cereals, especially rice, radishes, as- 
paragus, spinach, veal, olives (16%), apples 
and strawberries. Tea, coffee, rhubarb, and 
cabbage cause deposits of the oxalate of 
calcium. 



Potassium 

Sodium 

Magnesium 



Sulphur 



Iron 



Phosphorus 



Egg yolk, potatoes, apples, lemons, limes, 
oranges, olives (60%) and strawberries. 



Cabbage, asparagus, fibrin of meat, eggs, 
casein of milk, corn, turnips, cauliflower, and 
asparagus. 

Yolk of egg, beef, spinach, dandelions, apples, 
lettuce, lentils, strawberries, navy beans, 
peas, potatoes, wheat, and oatmeal. 

Meat and most vegetables. 



A knowledge of the carbohydrate content of foods 
is useful also in making up a diet, especially in dia- 
betes. Friedenwald and Ruhrah give the following in 
their order: 



String beans, asparagus, spinach, pickles, 
Less than 5% lettuce, cucumbers, greens, celery, Brussels 
sprouts, rhubarb, sauerkraut, tomatoes, ripe 
olives, cauliflower. 

Leeks, eggplant, pumpkin, kohlrabi, cab- 
bage, radishes, collards, watermelon, mush- 
From 5 to 10% rooms, beets, okra, strawberries, turnips, 
lemons, rutabagas, squash, musk melons, 
peaches, onions, cranberries. 

Blackberries, green onions, oranges, green 
From 10 to 15% olives, tomato catsup, currants, raspberries, 
apricots, parsnips, pears, apples, lima beans. 



220 What to Eat and When 

Nectarines, huckleberries, cherries, green peas, 
From 15 to 20% almonds, potatoes, succotash, fresh figs, 
prunes, grapes, baked beans, green corn. 

Over 20 % Plums, boiled potatoes, bananas, sweet pota- 

toes. 

In the following menus the effort has been to give 
a correct balance of the various food elements with 
the approximate calories furnished by each meal. 
They are suggestive only and may be varied according 
to the season of the year, the habits of work, or the 
tastes of the individual, care being taken to preserve 
the relative proportions. 

For instance, if much starch or fat is taken at a 
meal and little protein, the balance should swing in 
the other direction for another meal, the amount of 
protein being increased and that of carbohydrate 
decreased. 

Common sense must rule in the matter, as one indi- 
vidual would be illy fed on a diet which would be 
entirely adequate for another of more sedentary habit 
and weaker digestion. All the habits of life such as 
exercise, breathing, and mental activity must be taken 
into consideration. 

As previously remarked, there must be a variety 
in the diet which will stimulate the appetite, and, 
unless the tastes of the various members of a family 
arc capricious, they may be gratified. 

If potatoes are not relished rice may be substituted. 

Plain bread may be varied by rolls or biscuits. 

Well-masticated nuts may supply the protein 
usually served in meat and are often a welcome 
change. 

The protein balance is important as this substance 



Diets 221 

is the basis for growth and repair of the tissues of the 
body. 

When the protein balance of the family meal is 
provided by meat, if for any reason one member of 
the family does not care for meat, the protein may be 
supplied by eggs, or by the legumes as shown on 
pages 232-234. 

Let me repeat that everyone should watch his likes 
and dislikes in the matter of food and guard against 
allowing himself to become finicky ; he should not cultivate 
a dislike for a food which may disagree with him at a 
certain time or the taste of which he does not like, if that 
food is wholesome. 

Remember that the likes and dislikes for food are 
largely matters of cultivation and one misses much 
enjoyment and much of health which comes from a 
well-nourished body by habitually sitting down to a 
table in a pessimistic frame of mind because the food 
served does not suit the fancy. 

It is very difficult for a mother to provide a meal 
which suits each member of her family and considera- 
tion for her as well as for self should teach one to 
guard against a critical attitude. 

The following is an example of a badly balanced 
menu. It was given a family, including a child, by 
a mother who "had no time to study foods. She 
gave her folks what was the easiest to get and filled 
them up the quickest. ' ' This mother may have wasted 
hours in gossip with the neighbors, or on "fancy 
work." 

Breakfast 

Rolls with butter 
2 cups coffee 



222 What to Eat and When 

Luncheon 
Fried sweet potato 
Bread and butter 
Prunes 
Tea 

Dinner 
Macaroni with cheese 
Bread and butter 
Boiled potato 
Boiled rice with milk 
Tea with milk and sugar 

The cardinal sin of such a diet is in the lack of 
protein, the great predominance of starch, and the 
inadequate supply of fat. An excessive amount of 
sugar, however, was taken in the tea. This was taken 
to satisfy the taste, not realizing that the system 
demanded it for energy. 

The child was given one egg and one slice of bread 
for breakfast. Being a light eater it asked for no 
more, but her mother wondered why the child was so 
pale and suffered from constipation. 

No water was given with any meal. 

There are thousands of such illy nourished children 
in our schools, lacking in brain power and readily 
subject to infection, because of badly combined or poorly 
prepared food. 

The number of calories in such a diet may suffice to 
sustain life, but the balance is insufficient, the amount 
inadequate, the tissues are not repaired, the secretions 
lack some of their necessary ingredients or are scanty, 
and the functions of the body are not well performed. 

The following diet is for one who has 

Sedentary stained full growth and who exercises no 

ccup o more than to walk a few blocks a day. 



Diets 223 

The diet may seem light, but when one is sitting in- 
door most of the time, and has little outdoor exercise, 
less waste protein is oxidized and less starch, fat, and 
sugar are required for heat and energy. If too much 
carbonaceous food is consumed, one will store up too 
much and become too large. If more protein is con- 
sumed than is oxidized and eliminated one is liable 
to various derangements of the system. 

Every person at sedentary employment should 
exercise each day without fail, being particular to 
bring a thorough circulation to the vital organs. He 
should fully inflate his lungs many times a day and 
see to it that the air in the room is pure. 

In nearly all of the following menus coffee and tea 
have been omitted because, as before stated, they 
are not foods but stimulants, and the caffein and thein 
may overstimulate the nerves and the heart. They 
sometimes retard digestion. Some other warm drink 
should be substituted when there is digestive dis- 
turbance, or when the digestion is weak. They 
should never at any time be used strong. They 
are used simply for their pleasing flavor, or for 
warmth. 

The following diet is suggested for one of seden- 
tary habit who is not exercising and does not use up 
much mental or physical energy. 

DIET I 

Breakfast 
Fruit 

Cereal coffee or toast coffee 
Dry toast (one slice), or one muffin, or one gem 
I slice of crisp bacon 
I egg 



224 What to Eat and When 

If one has taken brisk exercise, or is to take a brisk 
walk of two or three miles, a dish of oatmeal or some 
other cereal, with cream and sugar, may be added. 

Luncheon 
Fruit 

Creamed soup or puree 
Meat, cheese or peanut butter sandwich, or two thin slices of 

bread and butter 
Cup of custard, or one piece of cake, or two cookies 

If puree of peas or beans is used the sandwich may be omitted 
and one slice of bread is sufficient. If the soup contains much 
cream or is made of corn or potato, the cake or cookies may be 
omitted. 

Dinner 
Meat, gravy, potatoes or rice 
One vegetable (green peas, green beans, cauliflower, greens, 

corn. Do not use dried baked beans or dried peas with 

lean meat) 
Salad or fruit 
Ice cream or pudding, such as bread, rice, tapioca, cornstarch, 

or chocolate, or an easily digested dessert. 

Diet II gives the calories of energy required by a 
business man or brain worker who uses much mental 
force. 

DIET II 

Breakfast 

1 orange without sugar ioo 
i shredded wheat biscuit with sugar and cream 175 

2 slices bacon 75 
2 tablespoonfuls creamed potato 160 

1 egg 70 

2 slices toast with butter 250 

1 baked apple 85 

2 cups cocoa 80 

995 



Diets 225 

Luncheon 



1 bowl oyster stew 


250 


6 crackers 


120 




370 


Dinner 




yi pint clear soup with croutons 


75 


I portion beefsteak 


433 


2 tablespoonfuls green beans 


70 


2 baked potatoes (medium size) 


90 


2 slices bread 


175 


1 pat butter 


33 


2 tablespoonfuls rice pudding with raisins and cream 


450 




1326 




995 




370 




2691 



Diet III gives approximately the calories required 
for one taking moderate exercise. 

DIET III 

Breakfast 

Fruit with sugar 100 

2 tablespoonfuls oatmeal with cream and sugar 170 

1 piece broiled fish four inches square 205 

2 slices buttered toast 250 

1 cup coffee with cream and sugar 125 

850 

Luncheon 

2 tablespoonfuls beans baked with bacon 150 
1 baked apple with cream 200 

1 cup cocoa 68 

2 slices bread (thin) with butter 200 



618 



IS 



226 What to Eat and When 



Dinner 


, 


yi pint pur£e (vegetable) 


150 


i portion boiled mutton 


300 


2 potatoes (medium size) 


90 


2 slices bread and buttef 


250 


2 tablespoonfuls scalloped tomato 


150 


2 tablespoonfuls brown betty or peach tapioca with light 




cream 


300 


i cup coffee with cream and sugar 


125 




1365 




850 




618 



2833 

There is no time in life when one needs 

_ „ e to be so watchful of the diet as during these 

or Boy from . . - 

13 to 21 years. Growth is very rapid and much 

protein is needed to build tissue, particu- 
larly to build the red blood corpuscles. Anemia may 
be produced by a faulty diet or by one which lacks 
eggs, meat, fresh vegetables or fruit, particularly in 
developing girls. 

The red meats, the yolk of eggs, spinach and all 
kinds of greens are important articles of diet at this 
time, because of the iron which they contain. They 
should be supplied freely. Butter and milk are valu- 
able and regular exercises with deep breathing are 
imperative. 

If the appetite wanes, be sure thac the girl or boy 
is getting sufficient brisk exercise in the fresh air. 

DIET IV 

Breakfast 

Fruit 

Oatmeal, shredded wheat biscuit or triscuit, or some other well 
cooked cereal with cream and sugar 



Diets 227 

One egg, boiled or poached (cooked soft), or chipped beef in 

cream gravy 
Cereal coffee, toast coffee, or hot water with cream and sugar 
Buttered toast, gems, or muffins 

Luncheon 
Cream soup, bean soup, or pur£e with crackers or dry toast 
Bread and butter 
Fruit and cake, or rice pudding, or bread, tapioca, cocoanut, or 

cereal pudding of any kind, or a cup of custard, or a dish 

of ice cream 

Dinner 
Meat (preferably red meat) 
Potatoes 
Vegetables, preferably spinach, or greens of some kind, or beets 

boiled with the tops 
Graham bread 
Fruit, graham bread toasted or graham wafers. Cake of some 

simple variety. 
Candy (small quantity) 

A growing child is usually hungry when it returns 
from school, and it is well to give a little easily digested 
food regularly at this time, but not sufficient to destroy 
the appetite for the evening meal. Irregular eating 
between meals, however, should be discouraged. An 
egg lemonade is easily digested and satisfying. If 
active and exercising freely, craving for sweets should 
be gratified to a limited extent. 

Tne growing boy or girl takes from six to eight 
glasses of water a day. 

Overeating, however, should be guarded against 
for many of the dietary habits of adult life are formed 
in this period, and the foundation of many dietetic 
difficulties and disturbances of the system are laid. 

If one is not hungry at meal time, the chances are 
that he is not exercising sufficiently in the fresh air. 



228 What to Eat and When 

Thorough mastication should be insisted on. 

One should encourage the habit of eating hard 
crusts or hard crackers to exercise the teeth and to 
insure the swallowing of sufficient saliva. 

The schoolboy or schoolgirl, anxious to be out at 
play, is especially liable to bolt the food or to eat an 
insufficient amount. This should be especially guarded 
against and parents should insist on the proper time 
being spent at meals. 

The dislike for meat or for certain vegetables or 
articles of food, which develops in this period, should 
be guarded against. All wholesome food should be 
made a part of the diet and the child should not be 
indulged in its likes or dislikes, but should be instructed 
in overcoming these. 

Very few foods disagree at all times with a normal 
child and if they do the cause usually lies in a disor- 
dered digestion which needs to be restored by more 
careful attention to exercise, deep breathing, and to 
elimination of the waste of the system. 

The young man active in athletics needs 

Atui practically the same food as given in Diet 

IV, yet more in quantity. He needs to 

drink water before his training and at rest periods 

during the game. 

If he is too fat, he should train off the superfluous 
amount by exercise and by judiciously abstaining 
from much sugars, starches, and fats. 

Diets for reduction, however, must be governed 
by the condition of the kidneys and the digestive 
organs. 

Deep breathing habits are imperative though he 
must be careful not to overtax lungs or heart by 



Diets 229 

hard continuous straining, either at breathing or at 
exercise. 

The man engaged in muscular work 
requires plenty of food; he can digest e m a ~° r " 
foods which the professional or business 
man, or the man of sedentary habits, cannot. He will 
probably be able to drink coffee and tea without any 
disturbance to nerves or to digestion. In his muscular 
work he liberates the waste freely and needs fats, 
starches, and sugars to supply the heat and energy. 
This is especially true of men who work in the fresh 
air; the muscular action liberates waste and heat and 
the full breathing freely oxidizes the waste, putting 
it in condition to be excreted through lungs, skin, 
kidneys, and intestines. 

He should have more meat, eggs, and nitrogenous 
foods, and he also needs more carbonaceous foods to 
supply heat and energy, as given in Diet V. Three 
hearty meals a day are necessary. 

His muscular movements keep the circulation force- 
ful and the vital organs strong so that his diet may 
be almost as heavy as that of the football player. 
Meat or eggs, twice a day, with tea or coffee, and 
even pie may be eaten with impunity. He needs a 
good nourishing breakfast of bacon and eggs or meat, 
also potatoes, or a liberal allowance of bread and 
butter, corn bread, muffins, etc. 



230 What to Eat and When 

DIET V 

Breakfast 

Calories 

4 tablespoonfuls fresh or stewed fruit with sugar ioo 

3 tablespoonfuls oatmeal with milk and sugar 200 

1 portion ham four inches square with fat 200 

2 eggs 140 
2 cups coffee with cream and sugar 250 
2 slices bread and butter 250 



1 140 



Luncheon 



2 sandwiches (cheese) 300 

r • sandwich (marmalade) 125 

I pint of milk 200 

1 slice cake or pie 100 



725 



Dinner 



yi pint oyster stew or vegetable pur6e 100 

2 baked potatoes 100 

4 tablespoonfuls macaroni with tomatoes and butter sauce 200 

4 slices thick bread and butter 500 

2 portions roast beef (fat) 400 

2 cups coffee 250 

I slice pie 1 00 

1650 

1 140 

725 

3515 

The following constitutes an average 
of Aee which will supply the daily requirement 

for the aged, or for one at any age whose 
organs are not functioning strongly. 



Diets 231 

DIET VI 

Breakfast 
Cereal, well cooked, with cream or sugar. Oatmeal is preferable 

because it is laxative 
One egg, boiled, poached, or baked (soft) 
One slice of toast 
Cereal coffee 

Dinner 
Bouillon or soup 
Meat — small portion 
Potato (preferably baked) 
One vegetable 

Cup custard, or bread, rice, or other light pudding with lemon 
cream sauce 

Supper 
Soup 

Bread and butter 
Stewed fruit 
Tea 

These individuals need little meat. Tea, if used, 
should not be strong and, for reasons given on page 
104, should never be allowed to steep. 

If the habit of life is active, if one exercises regularly, 
and if the constitution is vigorous and the body not 
too encumbered with fat, a greater variety and amount 
of food ma}'- be allowed, but great regularity should 
be observed concerning the diet and the hours for 
meals. Thorough mastication is more than ever a 
necessity. 

If inclined to constipation, or if the kidneys are 
inactive, grapes or an apple, or some fruit, well 
chewed, may be eaten just before retiring. 

Careful attention must be given to securing thorough 
removal of waste by attention to the eliminative 
organs, not overloading them. 



232 



What to Eat and When 



TABLES OF USE IN MAKING UP BALANCED DIETS 

The following table from Dudley Roberts is of 
material help in making up combinations of foodstuffs 
for balanced diets: 



FOOD STUFF 


Quantity 


Calories 
of Energy 


Grams of 
Protein 


Milk 


8 oz. 


1 glass 


160 


8.4 


Skim milk 


8 oz. 


1 glass 


80 


8.0 


Cream 


8 gm 


1 tsp. 


20 


0.2 


Condensed milk 








5 


(sweetened) 


20 gm. 


hp. tsp. 


50 


1.8 


Condensed milk 








1 


(unsweetened) 


20 " 


" " 


40 


2.0 


Chocolate powd. 


10 " 


II It 


90 


1.2 


Beef juice, beef tea, 










bouillon, clear soup 


5 oz. 


teacup 


5-30 


1-3 


Cream soup 


8 " 


soup plate 


IOO-25O 




Sugar 


io gm 


hp. tsp. 


40 




Egg (whole) 


50 " 


1 


70 




Egg (yolk) 




I 


55 


2.4 


Butter 


io gm 


1 in. cube 


65 


0.6 


Cheese 


a u 


<< (t 


45 


3-0 


Meat and fish (lean) 


50 ;; 


hp. tbsp. 


60 


12.0 


Meat (medium fat) 




" " 


100 


7.0 


" (very fat) 


it u 


11 n 


150 


4.0 


Oysters (small) 


8 " 


1 


3 


o-5 


Oysters (large) 


25 " 


1 


10 


1-5 


Crackers 


3-10 


I 


12-30 


3-6 


Cereals (cooked) 


30-40 ' 


teacup 


1 10-150 


3-5 


Cereals (prepared) 


5-7 


hp. tsp. 


18-25 


0.5-0.7 


Shredded wheat 


30 " 


I 


100 


3-o 


Triscuit 


15 " 


1 


50 


1.5 


Peas (fresh or canned) 


35 :: 


hp. tbsp. 


25 


2.0 


Peas (dried) 


2 5 


<< << 


100 


6.0 


Beans (dried) 


25 " 


it tt 


90 


5-o 


Beans 










(fresh or canned) 


30 " 


n tt 


30 


1.0 


Potatoes 










(medium size) 


90 " 


I, 3 in.long 


80 


1.0 


Jelly (sweet) 


— 


teacup 


50-100 


— 


Apples 


100 " 


I 


40 


0.2 


Oranges 


125 " 


1 med. size 


60 


0-5 


Bananas 


50 " 


1 med. size 


45 


O.7 


Dried fruit 










(prunes, etc.) 


100 " 


1 saucer 










medium 


100-200 


i-3 



Diets 



233 



The following tables 1 are exceptionally valuable in 
compiling diets in various combinations. One can 
readily determine the number of grams in various serv- 
ings of different foods. For example: a small serving 
of beef (round), containing some fat, weighs 36 grams; 
40 per cent., 14.4 grams, is protein, and 60 per cent., 
21.6 grams, is fat (no carbohydrates). One ordi- 
nary thick slice of white, home-made bread weighs 38 
grams; 13 per cent., 4.94 grams, is protein; 6 per cent., 
2.28 grams, is fat, and 81 per cent., 30.78 grams, is 
carbohydrate. 

The proportion of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats 
required by the average individual as suggested on 
page 208 can be readily made up from various com- 
binations of foods. Each individual may ascertain 
whether he is taking too much food, or too large a 
proportion of proteins or of carbohydrates or fats. 

TABLE OF 100 FOOD UNITS 



NAME OF FOOD 



"Portion" Con- 
taining 100 Food 
Units (approx.) 



Wt. of 100 
Calories 



Per cent, of 






COOKED MEATS 



fBeef, r'nd, boiled (fat) ...Small serving. . . 
+Beef, r'd, boiled (lean) . ..Large serving. . . 
tBeef, r'd, boiled (med.) . .Small serving . . . 
fBeef, 5th rib, roasted.. . .Half serving. . . , 
tBeef, 5th rib, roasted.. . .Very small s'v'g 

frBeef, ribs boiled Small serving . . . 

♦Calves foot jelly , 



36 


1-3 


40 


60 


62 


2.2 


90 


10 


44 


1.6 


60 


40 


18.5 


0.65 


12 


88 


25 


0.88 


18 


82 


30 


1.1 


27 


73 


112 


4- 


19 


00 



1 These are from Food and Dietetics (Norton), published by 
the American School of Home Economics, Chicago. They are 
used in a number of schools of Domestic Science and in the 
Dietetic kitchens in hospitals. 



234 



What to Eat and When 



NAME OP FOOD 



" Portion" Con- 
taining ioo Food 
Units (approx.) 



Wt. of ioo 
Calories 



Per cent, of 



COOKED MEATS— Continued 



♦Chicken, canned One thin slice . . 

♦Lamb chops, broiled, av. .One small chop. 

♦Lamb leg, roasted Ord. serving. . . 

tMutton, leg, boiled Large serving . . 

tPork, ham, boiled (fat) . . Small serving . . 

tPork, ham, boiled Ord. serving 

tPork, ham, r'st'd (fat).. .Small Serving. . , 
tPork, ham, r'st'd (lean) ..Small serving. . , 
tVeal, leg, boiled Large serving . . , 



VEGETABLES 



27 


O.96 


23 


77 


27 


0.96 


24 


76 


50 


1.8 


40 


60 


34 


1.2 


35 


65 


20.5 


o.73 


14 


86 


32.5 


1.1 


28 


72 


27 


0.96 


19 


81 


34 


1.2 


33 


67 


67-Si 


2.4 


73 


27 



•Artichokes, av. canned 

•Asparagus, av. canned 

♦Asparagus, av. cooked 

•Beans, baked, canned.. . .Small side dish.. 
•Beans, Lima, canned . . . .Large side dish . . 
•Beans, string, cooked . . . . Five servings. . . 
•Beets, edible portion, 

cooked Three servings . 

•Cabbage, edible portion 

Carrots, cooked Two servings. . . 

♦Cauliflower, as purchased 

♦Celery, edible portion 

Corn, sweet, cooked One side dish . . 

♦Cucumbers, edible pt 

♦Eggplant, edible pt 

Lentils, cooked 

♦Lettuce, edible pt 

♦Mushrooms, as purchased 

Onions, fresh, edible pt 

•Onions, cooked 3 large s' v'gs. . . 

Parsnips, cooked 

♦Peas, green, canned Two servings 

♦Peas, green, cooked One serving 

Potatoes, baked One good sized . 

♦Potatoes, boiled One large sized . 

♦Potatoes mashed(creamed)One serving ... 

♦Potatoes, chips One-half s'v'g. . 

♦Potatoes, sweet, cooked . .Half av. potato. 
♦Pumpkins, edible pt 

Radishes, as purchased 

Rhubarb, edible pt 

•Spinach, cooked Two ord. s'v'gs. 

Squash, edible pt . 

♦Succotash, canned Ord. serving . . . 

•Tomatoes, fresh as pur- 
chased Four av 

Tomatoes, canned 

•Turnips, edible pt 2 large s'v'gs . . . 

Vegetable oysters 



430 


15. 


14 





540 


19. 


33 


5 


206 


7.19 


18 


63 


75 


2.66 


21 


18 


126 


4.44 


21 


4 


480 


16.66 


15 


48 


245 


8.7 


2 


23 


310 


II 


20 


8 


164 


5.81 


10 


34 


312 


II. 


23 


15 


540 


19. 


24 


5 


99 


3.5 


13 


10 


505 


20. 


18 


10 


350 


12. 


17 


10 


89 


3.15 


27 


I 


505 


18. 


25 


14 


215 


7-6 


31 


8 


200 


7-1 


13 


5 


240 


8.4 


12 


40 


103 


5-84 


10 


34 


178 


6-3 


25 


3 


85 


3- 


23 


27 


86 


3.05 


II 


I 


102 


3.62 


II 


I 


89 


3.14 


10 


25 


17 


0.6 


4 


63 


49 


1.7 


6 


9 


380 


13. 


15 


4 


480 


17. 


18 


3 


430 


15. 


10 


27 


174 


6.1 


15 


66 


210 


7-4 


12 


10 


100 


35 


15 


9 


430 


15. 


15 


16 


431 


15-2 


21 


7 


246 


8.7 


13 


4 


273 


9-62 


10 


51 



Diets 



235 



NAME OF FOOD 



"Portion" Con- 
taining 100 Food 
Units (approx.) 



Wt. of 100 
Calories 


Per cent. 


« 




*CJ 




a 




U 










+a 




N 




d 





O 


cu 


fu 



FRUITS (DRIED) 



•Apples, as purchased 

Apricots, as purchased 

♦Dates, edible portion .... Three large . 

♦Dates, as purchased 

♦Figs, edible portion One large . . , 

♦Prunes, edible portion. . .Three large. 

♦Prunes, as purchased 

♦Raisins, edible portion 

♦Raisins, as purchased 



34 


1.2 


3 


7 


35 


1.24 


7 


3 


28 


0.99 


2 


7 


31 


I.I 


2 


7 


31 


I.I 


s 





32 


1. 14 


3 





38 


1.35 


3 





28 




3 


9 


31 


I.I 


3 


9 



FRUITS (FRESH OR COOKED) 



♦Apples, as purchased .... Two apples .... 

Apples, baked . 

Apples, sauce Ord. serving . . . 

Apricots, cooked Large serving . . 

♦Bananas, edible pt One large 

♦Blackberries 

Blueberries 

♦Blueberries, canned 

Cantaloupe. .Half ord. serv'g. . 

♦Cherries, edible portion 

♦Cranberries, as purchased 

♦Grapes, as purchased, av 

Grape fruit 

Grape juice Small glass .... 

Gooseberries 

Lemons . v 

♦Lemon juice 

Nectarines 

Olives, ripe About seven . . . 

Oranges, as purchased, av.One very large . 
•Oranges, juice Large glass .... 

Peaches, as purchased, av.Three ordinary . 
♦Peaches, sauce Ord. serving . . . 

Peaches, juice Ordinary glass. . 

Pears One large pear . 

♦Pears, sauce 

Pineapples, edible p't'n, av 

♦Raspberries, black 

Raspberries, red . . . . k 

Strawberries, av Two servings. . . 

♦Watermelon, av 



DAIRY PRODUCTS 



♦Butter Ordinary pat., 

♦Buttermilk i l A glass . 

♦Cheese, Am., pale ij| cubic in. . , 

♦Cheese, cottage 4 cubic in. ... . 

♦Cheese, full cream \% cubic in. . 

♦Cheese, Neufchatel i^i cubic in. . 

♦Cheese, Swiss 1 »4 cubic in. . , 



206 


7-3 


3 


7 


94 


3-3 


2 


5 


in 


3-9 


2 


5 


131 


4.61 


6 





100 


3-5 


5 


5 


170 


5-9 


9 


16 


128 


4.6 


3 


8 


165 


5.8 


4 


9 


243 


8.6 


6 





124 


4-4 


5 


10 


210 


7-5 


3 


12 


136 


4.8 


5 


15 


215 


7-57 


7 


4 


120 


4-2 








261 


9-2 


5 





215 


7-57 


9 


14 


246 


8.77 








147 


5.18 


4 





37 


I.3I 


2 


9i 


270 


9-4 


6 


3 


188 


6.62 








290 


10. 


7 


2 


136 


4.78 


4 


2 


136 


4.80 








173 


5.40 


4 


7 


113 


3.98 


3 


4 


226 


8. 


4 


6 


146 


5.18 


10 


14 


178 


6.29 


8 





260 


9.1 


10 


15 


760 


27. 


6 


6 



12.5 


0.44 


o.s 


99.S 


275 


9-7 


34 


12 


22 


0.77 


25 


73 


89 


3.12 


76 


8 


23 


0.82 


25 


73 


29.5 


1.05 


22 


76 


23 


0.8 


25 


74 



236 



What to Eat and When 





"Portion" Con- 
taining ioo Pood 
Units (approx.) 


Wt. of ioo 
Calories 


Per cent, of 


NAME OP FOOD 


s 

u 

o 


o 




u 

to 




1 ° 

.82 

UJ3 



DAIRY PRODUCTS— Continued 



♦Cheese, pineapple x% cubic in. 

♦Cream % ord. glass 

Kumyss 

♦Milk, condensed, sweet'nd 

♦Milk, condensed, unsw't'nd 

♦Milk, skimmed \% glass . . . 

♦Milk, whole Small glass . 

Milk, human, 2d week 

Milk, human, 3d month 

♦Whey Two glasses . 



20 


0.72 


25 


73 


49 


1-7 


5 


86 


188 


6.7 


21 


37 


30 


1.06 


10 


23 


59 


2.05 


24 


50 


255 


9-4 


37 


7 


140 


4-9 


19 


52 


162 


5-7 


11 


47 


171 


6 


7 


46 


360 


13 


15 


10 



CAKES, PASTRY, PUDDINGS, AND DESSERTS 



♦Cake, chocolate layer... .Half ord. sq. pc. 
♦Cake, gingerbread Half ord. sq. pc. , 

Cake, sponge Small piece 

Custard, caramel 

Custard, milk Ordinary cup . . . 

Custard, tapioca Two-thirds ord . . 

♦Doughnuts Half a doughnut 

♦Lady fingers Two 

♦Macaroons Four 

♦Pie, apple One-third piece.. 

♦Pie, cream One-fourth pc . .. 

♦Pie, custard One-third piece. . 

♦Pie, lemon One-third piece. . 

♦Pie, mince One-fourth piece 

♦Pie, squash One-third piece. . 

Pudding, apple sago 

Pudding, brown betty . . . Half ord. s'v'g. . , 

Pudding, cream rice. . . . .Very small s'v'g. 

Pudding, Indian meal. .. .Half ord. s'v'g... 

Pudding, apple tapioca. . .Small serving . . . 

Tapioca, cooked Ord. serving 



SWEETS AND PICKLES 



28 


O.98 


7 


22 


27 


0.96 


6 


23 


25 


0.89 


7 


25 


71 


2.51 


19 


10 


122 


4-29 


26 


56 


69-5 


2.45 


9 


12 


23 


0.8 


6 


45 


27 


0.95 


10 


12 


23 


0.82 


6 


33 


38 


1-3 


5 


32 


30 


I.I 


5 


32 


55 


1.9 


9 


32 


38 


1-35 


6 


36 


35 


1.2 


8 


38 


55 


1.9 


10 


42 


81 


3«02 


6 


3 


56.6 


2. 


7 


12 


75 


2.65 


8 


13 


56.6 


2. 


12 


25 


79 


2.8 


1 


I 


108 


3.85 


I 


X 



♦Catsup, tomato, av 

Candy, plain 

Candy, chocolate 

♦Honey Four teasp'ns . . . 

♦Marmalade (orange) 

Molasses, cane 

♦Olives, green.edible, portion Five to seven . . 
♦Olives, ripe, edible portion Five to seven . . . 

♦Pickles, mixed 

♦Sugar, granulated Three heap'g tsp. 

or i}4 lumps. . . 

♦Sugar, maple Four teaspoons. . 

♦Syrup, maple Four teaspoons . , 



170 


6. 


10 


3 


26 


0.9 








30 


1.1 


1 


4 


30 


1.05 


1 





28.3 


1 


0.5 


2.5 


35 


1.2 


0.5 





32 


1.1 


1 


84 


38 


i.3 


2 


9i 


415 


14.6 


18 


IS 


24 


0.86 








29 


1.03 








35 


1.2 









Diets 



237 



NAME OF FOOD 



" Portion " Con- 
taining 100 Food 
Units (approx.) 



Wt. of 100 






Calories 


Per cent. 


tn 




■n 




a 




<u 












u 


N 




a 





O 


Cn 


fe 



NUTS, EDIBLE PORTION 



♦Almonds, av Eight to 15 

♦Beechnuts 

•Brazil nuts Three ord. size. . 

♦Butternuts 

♦Cocoanuts 

♦Chestnuts, fresh, av 

♦Filberts, av Ten nuts 

♦Hickory nuts 

♦Peanuts, av Thirteen double . 

♦Pecans, polished About eight 

♦Pine nuts (pignolias) About eighty 

♦Walnuts, California About six 



IS 


O.S3 


13 


77 


14.8 


0.52 


13 


79 


14 


o.49 


10 


86 


14 


0.50 


16 


82 


16 


o.57 


4 


77 


40 


1.4 


10 


20 


14 


0.48 


9 


84 


13 


o.47 


9 


«5 


18 


0.62 


20 


63 


13 


0.46 


6 


87 


16 


0.56 


22 


74 


14 


O.48 


10 


83 



CEREALS 

•Bread, brown, average ... Ord. thick slice. . 
♦Bread, corn (johnny cake) 

av Small sguare .... 

♦Bread, white, home made Ord. thick slice. . 
♦Cookies, sugar Two 

Corn flakes, toasted Ord. serving .... 

♦Corn meal, granular, av. . 2^ level tbsp . . . 

Corn meal, unbolted, av.. Three tbsp 

♦Crackers, graham Two crackers . . . 

♦Crackers, oatmeal Two crackers . . . 

♦Crackers, soda zYi "Uneedas" . . 

♦Hominy, cooked Large serving . . . 

♦Macaroni, av 

Macaroni, cooked Ord. serving .... 

♦Oatmeal, boiled ij^ serving 

♦Popcorn 

♦Rice, uncooked 

♦Rice, boiled Ord. cereal dish . 

♦Rice, flakes Ord.cereal dish .. 

♦Rolls, Vienna, av One large roll . . . 

♦Shredded wheat One biscuit 

♦Spaghetti, average 

♦Wafers, vanilla Four 

Wheat.flour.e't'e w'h't.av.Four tbsp 

♦Wheat, flour, graham, av.4^2 tbsp 

♦Wheat, flour, patent, fam- 
ily and straight grade 

spring wheat, av Four tbsp 

♦Zwiebach Size of thick slice 

of bread . 



43 


1-5 


9 


7 


38 


1.3 


12 


16 


38 


1.3 


13 


6 


24 


O.83 


7 


22 


27 


o.97 


11 


1 


27 


0.96 


10 


5 


26 


0.92 


9 


11 


23 


O.82 


9-5 


20.5 


23 


0.81 


11 


24 


24 


0.83 


9.4 


20 


120 


4.2 


11 


2 


27 


0.96 


15 


2 


110 


3.85 


14 


15 


159 


5-6 


18 


7 


24 


0.86 


11 


11 


28 


0.98 


9 


I 


87 


3-1 


10 


1 


27 


0.94 


8 


I 


35 


1.2 


12 


7 


27 


0.94 


13 


4-5 


28 


o.97 


12 


I 


24 


0.84 
0.96 


8 


13 


27 


15 


5 


27 


0.96 


15 


5 


27 


0.97 


12 


3 


23 


0.81 


9 


21 



MISCELLANEOUS 



♦Eggs, hen's, boiled One large egg . 

♦Eggs, hen's, whites Of six eggs.. . . 

♦Eggs, hen's, yolks Two yolks .... 

♦Omelet 



59 


2.1 


32 


68 


181 


6.4 


100 





27 


0.94 


17 


83 


94 


3-3 


34 


60 



2?>8 



What to Eat and When 



NAME OF FOOD 



"Portion" Con- 
taining ioo Food 
Units (approx.) 



Wt. of ioo 
Calories 



Per cent of 



.o B 

A >> 



MISCELLANEOUS— Continued 



*Soup, beef, av 

*Soup, bean, av Very large plate 

*Soup, cream of celery .... Two plates 

*Consomm6 

*Clam chowder Two plates 

*Chocolate, bitter Half-a-square . . . 

*Cocoa . 

Ice cream (Phila.) Half serving. . . . 

Ice cream (New York) . . .Half serving . . . . 



380 


13. 


69 


14 


150 


5-4 


20 


20 


180 


6.3 


16 


47 


830 


29- 


85 


00 


230 


8.2S 


17 


18 


16 


0.56 


8 


72 


20 


0.69 


17 


53 


45 


1.6 


5 


57 


48 


1-7 


7 


47 



* Chemical Composition of American Food Materials, Atwater and Bryant, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bull. 28. 

f Experiments on Losses in Cooking Meats (1900-03), Grindley, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, Bull. 141. 

X Laboratory number of specimen, as per Experiments on Losses in 
Cooking Meats. 



TABLES SHOWING AVERAGE HEIGHT, WEIGHT, 

SKIN SURFACE, AND FOOD UNITS REQUIRED 

DAILY WITH VERY LIGHT EXERCISE 



Boys 





Height in 


Weight in 


Surface in 


Calories or 


Age 


Inches 


Pounds 


Square Feet 


Food Units 


5 


41.57 


41.09 


79 


8l6.2 


6 


43-75 


45-17 


8-3 


855.9 


7 


45-74 


49.07 


8.8 


912.4 


8 


4776 


53-92 


9.4 


981. 1 


9 


49.69 


59.23 


9.9 


10437 


10 


51.58 


65.30 


10.5 


III7.5 


11 


53-33 


70.18 


II.O 


II78.2 


12 


55.II 


76.92 


11.6 


I254.8 


13 


57-21 


84.85 


12.4 


1352.6 


14 


59.88 


94.91 


13-4 


I47I.3 



Diets 

Girls 



239 





Height in 


Weight in 


Surface in 


Calories or 


Age 


Inches 


Pounds 


Square Feet 


Food Units 


5 


4I.29 


39-66 


77 


784.5 


6 


43-35 


43.28 


8.1 


831.9 


7 


45-52 


4746 


8.5 


88I.7 


8 


47.58 


52.04 


9.2 


957.1 


9 


49-37 


57.07 


97 


IOI8.5 


10 


51.34 


62.35 


10.2 


I08I.0 


11 


53-42 


68.84 


10.7 


1 148.5 


12 


55.88 


78.31 


11.8 


I276.8 



Men 





Weight 


Surface 






Food Units 




Height in 


in 


in Square 


Proteids 


Calories 


Carbo- 


Total 


Inches 


Pounds 


Feet 




or Fats 


hydrates 




61 


131 


15.92 


197 


591 


1 182 


1970 


62 


133 


16.06 


200 


600 


1200 


2000 


63 


136 


16.27 


204 


612 


1224 


2040 


64 


I40 


16.55 


210 


63O 


1260 


2100 


65 


143 


16.76 


215 


645 


I29O 


2150 


66 


147 


17.06 


221 


663 


1326 


2210 


67 


152 


17.40 


228 


684 


1368 


2280 


68 


157 


17.76 


236 


708 


I416 


236O 


69 


162 


18.12 


243 


729 


1458 


243O 


70 


I67 


18.48 


251 


753 


I506 


25IO 


71 


173 


18.91 


260 


780 


I56O 


2600 


72 


179 


19.34 


269 


807 


I614 


269O 


73 


185 


19.89 


2 7 8 


834 


1668 


278O 


74 


I92 


20.33 


288 


864 


1728 


2880 


75 


200 


20.88 


300 


900 


I800 


3000 



Women 



Height in 
Inches 


Weight 

in 
Pounds 


Surface 

in Square 

Feet 


Proteids 


Calories 
or Fats 


Food Units 
Carbo- 
hydrates 


Total 


59 
60 
61 


119 

122 

124 


14.82 
15-03 
15.29 


179 

183 
186 


537 
549 

558 


IO74 
IO98 
IIl6 


1790 
1830 
i860 



2\Q> 



What to Eat and When 



Women — Continued 





Weights 


Surface 






Food Units 




Height in 


in 


in Square 


Proteids 


Calories 


Carbo- 


Total 


Inches 


Pounds 


Feet 




of Fats 


hydrates 




62 


127 


15-50 


191 


573 


1 146 


I91O 


63 


131 


15.92 


197 


591 


II82 


1970 


64 


134 


16.13 


201 


603 


I206 


2010 


65 


139 


16.48 


209 


627 


1254 


2090 


66 


143 


16.76 


215 


645 


I29O 


2150 


67 


147 


17.06 


221 


663 


1326 


2210 


68 


151 


17-34 


227 


681 


1362 


2270 


69 


155 


17.64 


232 


696 


1392 


2320 


70 


159 


17.92 


239 


717 


1434 


2390 



Note. — With active exercise an increase of about 20 per cent, 
total food units may be needed. 

DIETARY CALCULATION WITH FOOD VALUES IN 
CALORIES PER OUNCE 



Breakfast 

Gluten gruel, 5 oz. 
Soft-boiled egg 
Malt honey, 1 oz. 
Creamed potatoes, 
Zwiebach, 2 oz. 
Pecans, }i oz. 
Apple, 5 oz. 



5 oz 



Proteids 


Fats 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


23.5 
26.3 

15.0 

22.8 
8.4 
2.5 


1.0 

4I.9 

40.O 

52.8 

I4I.0 

6-5 

283.2 


30.0 

86.2 
104.0 
171.6 

13-4 
83.0 

488.2 


98-5 



Total 



869.9 



DIETARY CALCULATION WITH FOOD SERVED IN 100 
CALORIES PORTIONS 



Dinner 

French soup 
Nut sauce 



Portions 

in 
serving 


Proteids 


Fats 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


I 


10 
29 


20 

55 


20 
16 



Total 



Diets 



241 





Portions 












in 
serving 


Proteids 


Fats 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Total 


Dinner — Continued 












Macaroni, egg 


I 


15 


59 


26 




Baked potato 


2 


22 


2 


I 7 6 




Cream gravy 


H 


5 


33 


12 




Biscuit 


i# 


20 


2 


128 




Butter 


i 


1 


99 






Honey 


2 






200 




Celery 


X 


4 




21 




Apple juice 


V* 






50 






ioj4 


106 


270 


649 


IO25 



Hourly Outgo in Heat and Energy from the Human Body 

as Determined in the Respiration Calorimeter 

by the u. s. dept. of agriculture 

Average (154 lbs.) Calories 

Man at rest (asleep) 65 

Sitting up (awake) 100 

Light exercise 170 

Moderate exercise 190 

Severe exercise 450 

Very severe exercise , . 600 

16 



CHAPTER X 

DIET IN ABNORMAL CONDITIONS 

IN the dietetic treatment of any disordered organ, 
the object must be to give that organ as much rest 
from its regular work as is consistent with keeping 
up the general nutrition of the system. The stomach 
and intestines and liver are so closely allied that, when 
one is affected, the others are liable to affection also, 
and the dietetic treatment is regulated accordingly. 

In abnormal conditions it is necessary to say that 
the food must be regulated according to the case. 
Yet, broadly speaking, a diet largely of protein, which 
is digested in the stomach, rests the intestines and 
stimulates the liver, and a diet largely of carbohy- 
drates rests the stomach, because the gastric juice is 
not active in starch digestion. 

When the body is not in normal condition, because 
certain elements are lacking in the blood, these ele- 
ments must be supplied in larger proportions in the 
food, and the case is one for a food chemist, or for 
one who has made food conditions a study. 

The better medical colleges, recognizing the im- 
portance of proper food in health and disease, have 
in the last few years broadened their curriculum to 
include the subject of dietetics. Educated physical 
culturists and food specialists, for the correction of 

242 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 243 

deranged conditions of the system, due to poor circu- 
lation and abnormal nerve and blood conditions, are 
doing much of the corrective work, due to the fact 
that instruction has not been given in the medical 
colleges. 

Diets for the reduction of an abnormal amount of 
fat must also be governed according to the individual 
condition. 

In the early stages of various diseases, when toxins 
are being produced, as a rule the system is not prop- 
erly eliminating the waste, and it is often advisable 
to abstain from food for from one to three days, 
according to conditions. Brisk exercise, deep breath- 
ing, and a free use of water are desirable. A laxative 
is often recommended. 

The diets given here for abnormal conditions are 
to enable those in charge of an invalid to gain an 
intelligent understanding of the needs of the system 
and to supply those needs through the proper foods. 
In serious cases, however, special diets will be ordered 
by the medical attendant to suit the needs of the 
individual. 

A chemical analysis of the blood and the excretions 
is often the only method of determining just the diet 
in the individual case. 

Government chemical laboratories in charge of 
efficient chemists should be so located as to be access- 
ible to every physician. 

The system readily excretes an excess of vegetable 
products, and, as a rule, no acute difficulties result 
from such an excess. Such chronic difficulties as 
constipation, torpid liver, and indigestion, however, 
frequently result when an excess of starch is taken 
above that consumed in energy. 



244 What to Eat and When 

On account of the readiness with which putrefac- 
tion occurs in protein products, care should be taken 
not to consume these in too great proportion. 

A study of the physical ailments of thousands of 
women has shown, by the constituents in the blood 
and the condition of the different organs of the diges- 
tive system, the habitual taste for foods. One can 
usually determine which food the individual has formed 
a habit of eating, because the system will show a lack 
of the elements which that patient has denied herself 
on account of her likes and dislikes. 

It is necessary to change the mental attitude toward 
certain foods before the system will readily assimilate 
them ; thus, as stated, a taste for foods which the body 
requires should be cultivated. 

Every mother, with growing children, should be a 
thorough student of the chemistry of food. If the 
child's bones do not increase sufficiently in size and 
strength after the second year, care in the selection of 
foods rich in protein and phosphates of lime and magne- 
sium may correct it. Such a child should have scraped 
meat and whole wheat bread with milk and eggs. 

If the child stores up too much fat, increase the 
amount of exercise and of oxygen consumed, and 
either cut down the proportion of sweets and starches 
or decrease the quantity of food and require more 
thorough mastication. 

If one is thin and undernourished, chemical analysis 
of the contents of the stomach, intestines, and urine 
is sometimes desirable. The nerves should be 
relaxed, and proper food, exercise, and breathing 
should accompany medical treatment, if medicine 
is needed. Often an entire change in thought and 
diet are helpful. 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 245 

Sometimes a torpid condition of the liver and slug- 
gish activity of the intestines are indicated. Special 
exercises to stimulate this activity and to encourage 
correct poise and deep breathing are most essential. 
The mind must often be stimulated and an interest 
be awakened, directing the thoughts in new channels. 

Worry and tensity of thought are among the chief 
causes in the majority of cases of lack of flesh and of 
a very large number of blood and digestive disorders. 

In anemia there is either a decrease in « . 
the number of red blood corpuscles or an 
insufficient amount of blood. When there are too 
few red blood corpuscles, "oxygen carriers," the neces- 
sary quantity of oxygen is not furnished the tissues 
and the system becomes clogged with waste. The 
patient easily tires and is disinclined to exercise, thus 
the decreased number of red corpuscles are not kept 
in forceful circulation and the carbon dioxid is not 
freely thrown off by the lungs ; this further aggravates 
the condition. 

Since the blood is made from the foods assimilated, 
the point is to supply food which builds blood tissue. 
Exercise and deep breathing will encourage the elimi- 
nation of waste and promote a forceful circulation 
which insures nourishment to the tissues. As stated, 
it is the food assimilated, not always the amount 
eaten, that counts. 

In this condition it is of vital importance that one 
keep up a good circulation; the stomach, intestines, 
liver, and spleen must be strengthened through exer- 
cise and deep breathing of pure air, for the red blood 
corpuscles are oxygen carriers, and the insufficient 
supply must do double duty or the waste of the system 



246 What to Eat and When 

will not be oxidized and eliminated, and the blood- 
forming organs will further fail in their task. 

Exercise must be graded to the case, being gentle 
at first so as not to overtire the easily fatigued muscu- 
lar system. It should be intelligently directed to 
the joints and to the vital organs, particularly to the 
liver and intestines, that they may be kept in normal 
activity. The exercises must be followed with plenty 
of rest, and accompanied by deep breathing. The 
habit of full breathing is one of the most effective 
agencies in correction of anemia, because the red 
blood corpuscles must carry their full quota of oxygen 
or the system is clogged with waste. Oxygen also 
rejuvenates these corpuscles. 

Unless the blood furnished to the tissues is of good 
quality and contains sufficient oxygen, the nutrition 
of the body suffers, the activity of the various organs 
is hindered, and the health becomes impaired. Func- 
tional derangements, particularly in the digestive 
tract follow, and faulty digestion and difficult absorp- 
tion further impoverish the blood. 

The work, therefore, in the correction of anemia, 
lies in foods which build blood and in daily exercise 
and deep breathing of fresh air, accompanied by rest. 

The windows at night should admit a good circula- 
tion of air through the sleeping room, and as much 
time as possible should be spent in the open air. 

Anemia occurs many times in growing girls, due to 
an improperly balanced diet, caused by a capricious 
appetite and by the habit of satisfying this appetite 
with sweets, pickles, etc. 

The body, during growth, needs increased nutritive 
material, not only to replace the waste, but also to 
meet the demands for new building material for the 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 247 

various organs, particularly the brain and the nervous 
system. Overwork either in school or in industrial 
occupations, the hasty eating of meals, or insufficient 
amounts of food, also aid in reducing both the quantity 
and quality of the blood. 

Worry is one chief cause of anemia. 

Insufficient sleep, due to late hours, further in- 
creases the tension of the nerves and lowers the 
vitality, causing depression which interferes with 
digestion. 

When the red blood corpuscles are decreased the 
oxidation of the fats is interfered with, because oxygen 
is necessary to burn the fat. The non-use of the 
fatty material causes it to be stored in the tissues 
so that the body often appears well nourished and 
plump. The muscles, however, are flabby and weak 
and usually the pallor of the skin shows the lack of 
coloring matter in the blood. 

The digestive organs are often weak. They must 
not be overloaded or the very object of the extra 
feeding will be defeated. In such cases the food must 
be taken in less quantity and more frequently. Also 
a diet rich in albumin and iron must be supplied. 

It will often be found that one whose blood is lack- 
ing in hemoglobin and in the proper proportion of red 
blood corpuscles has had a dislike for the foods rich 
in iron, or perhaps through poverty, or some other 
cause, has not been able to get the right kind of 
food. 

The yolks of eggs, the red meats (such as steak, 
mutton, or the breast of wild game) and the deeply 
colored greens (such as spinach, chard, dandelions, 
etc.) contain a goodly proportion of iron. The dark 
leaves of lettuce, celery, and cabbage contain iron; 



248 What to Eat and When 

these vegetables are apt to be bleached before being 
marketed. 

It is better, in anemia, to take the yolks of two eggs 
than one whole egg, as the iron is in the yolk. A good 
way to take the yolks of eggs is in egg lemonade or 
in eggnog, with a little flavoring. 

Anemia sufferers have usually formed the habit 
of eating starches and sweets. It will usually be 
found that they have no desire for vegetables 
containing iron, or for meats rich in albuminoids, 
and this habit is shown in the blood composition. 
They often eat the white of the egg and discard 
the yolk, rich in iron. Tact and persuasion will 
often be necessary to induce them to take the proper 
foods. 

If constipation is present, whole wheat bread, oat- 
meal, stewed prunes, grapes, stewed or baked apples, 
and oranges, should be taken freely. 

When the anemic individual is thin, he should take 
as much fat food as the system will assimilate. Bacon 
is well digested and palatable. Fat may be taken in 
milk, cream, and butter. 

The food must be made attractive to tempt the 
appetite, which is usually poor, and within reason 
one should be allowed any wholesome food which he 
desires. Condiments often stimulate the stomach 
and intestines to better action. 

Vinegars, because of their action on the blood, 
should not be allowed nor rich pastries and sauces. 

Beef may be scraped and made into sandwiches 
or used in purees and meat broth, which may also 
have a beaten egg in it. 

The following is a suggestive diet in anemic 
conditions: 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 249 

DIET VII 
One pint of milk, to be sipped slowly before arising. 

Breakfast 

Fruit 

Broiled steak or two eggs, soft-boiled, poached, or baked, with 

bacon 
Cereal coffee, chocolate, or cocoa 
Toast, or graham, or whole wheat bread, or graham or corn 

muffins; butter 

Middle of the Forenoon 

Lemonade with a tablespoonful of beef juice (not beef extract) 

or with a beaten egg, or a 
Glass of egg malted milk, or an 
Eggnog 

Lunch 

Split pea or bean soup with toast and butter, or scraped beef 

sandwich with lettuce 
Fruit or vegetable and nut salad (no vinegar) 
Fruit, fresh or stewed 
Bread with plenty of butter 
Cake 
A glass of milk, cocoa, or chocolate; — preferably milk 

Middle of Afternoon 

Egg lemonade or eggnog of two eggs beaten in boiling milk with 
sugar and spices 

Dinner 
Bouillon 

Tenderloin steak, roast beef, or lamb chops 
Baked potato 

Spinach, beet, or dandelion greens 
Custard, fruit gelatin, or cornstarch pudding, or rice with lemon 

cream or butter sauce 
Bread and plenty of butter 
Glass of milk or weak tea 



250 What to Eat and When 

When appetite is persistently absent, attention 
should be paid to the eliminative organs in order to 
remove all clogging of the system by retained waste. 

If the stomach and intestines are prolapsed as a 
result of improper nourishment and resultant weak 
tissues, rest in bed, with special exercises which will 
replace the organs and strengthen the supporting 
tissues, is required. 

STOMACH DISORDERS 

Most chronic cases are due to worry; to improper 
hygiene, such as irregular meals; fat and greasy foods; 
hasty eating; too much sweets; insufficient mastica- 
tion, with resulting lack of saliva; wrong choice of 
foods; too frequent eating, giving the stomach no 
rest; too large an amount of food; too highly spiced 
foods; coffee or tea; a general run-down condition, 
with a weakness of muscles of the stomach, due to 
insufficient blood supply; to a weakened or over- 
strained condition of nerves controlling the stomach; 
and usually to insufficient exercise and fresh air. 

Indigestion or dyspepsia is the broad 
n lges on ^ erm CO mmonly applied to most chronic 
Dyspepsia stomach and intestinal difficulties, due, not 
alone to structural disease or to displace- 
ments, but also to their inability to perform their 
normal functions. The term includes troubles arising 
from so many different causes that in each case the 
cause must be determined and remedied before defin- 
ite results can be attained through diet. 

The most usual is that the gastric glands are pour- 
ing out an insufficient amount of secretion; almost 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 251 

always there is a deficiency of hydrochloric acid. 
In some cases in which the food has irritated and 
inflamed the stomach there may be a sufficient secre- 
tion of this acid, but an inflamed stomach throws off 
more mucus and the extra quantity of mucus neutral- 
izes the hydrochloric acid. 

When the acid is deficient or absent, the proteins 
are not well digested and the food may ferment; 
bacteria may produce putrefactive changes and the 
formation of gas. The gas interferes with the move- 
ment of the diaphragm, pressing it against the heart, 
causing pain and even palpitation. 

Indigestion is usually accompanied by constipa- 
tion, or by irregular action of the intestines. 

Plenty of fresh air, and exercise, directed definitely 
to muscles and nerves of the stomach, that it may be 
strengthened by a better blood supply, as well as 
exercises and deep breathing to build up the general 
health, should be systematically followed. 

Easily digested food, well masticated, and regular 
meals served daintily, will gradually regulate diges- 
tion. 

Food should not be of too great a variety at one 
meal. It must be simple and well prepared; when 
nerves and muscles are weak it should be served less 
in quantity but more frequently. Sometimes light 
food every hour or every two hours is best. 

Cheerful constructive thoughts are the very best 
of medicine for digestive derangements. 

A glass of cold water from one-half to an hour before 
the meal will cleanse the stomach by washing out the 
mucus and will promote the secretion of saliva and 
the gastric juices. 

The intelligent medical treatment of stomach 



252 What to Eat and When 

difficulties is aided by a chemical analysis of the 
stomach contents. If the stomach is not secreting 
normal proportions of pepsin or hydrochloric acid, 
the deficiency of either can be determined. Such 
chemical analysis will alone determine what elements 
are lacking. 

Permanent relief must lie in gaining a good circula- 
tion of blood through the entire body and through the 
stomach, that it may be strengthened and thus enabled 
to secrete these elements in proper proportions. 

This is due to the general depleted con- 

t„,*-™ + : „ dition of the nerves. In such cases the 
Indigestion 

entire nervous system should be regulated 
through exercise, breathing, rest, and a change of 
thought. Physicians usually recommend change of 
scene to cause a change of thought. 

The diet should be light and laxative, and low in 
protein. Cream soup, bread and milk, malted milk, 
buttermilk, cream, fruits, crackers and milk, custards, 
egg lemonade, and gruels, furnish easily digested 
food. 

Tea, coffee, much meat, fried food, highly spiced 
food, pastry, candies, pickles, alcohol, and tobacco 
should be avoided. 

When the walls of the stomach are weak and 
distended or prolapsed, light food served in small quan- 
tities at regular but more frequent periods is pre- 
ferable to a hearty meal, which further distends the 
stomach walls. The stomach does not secrete suffi- 
cient gastric juices to digest a meal large enough to 
supply the needs of the system, if food is taken only 
three times a day. 

When a loss of weight occurs, it usually indicates a 
failure to assimilate rather than the failure to eat a 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 253 

sufficient amount of food. A good circulation, par- 
ticularly through the vital organs, must be established; 
deep full breathing of fresh air, and regular and com- 
plete rest periods, should be observed. 

Usually, in chronic cases, a dietitian, or a physician, 
is not called until the condition has prevailed for so 
long that other complications have set in and the 
patient has lost much flesh. It takes months to pull 
the system down and it takes months of following of 
proper hygiene to build it up. 

This involves an inflammation of the Q astr j tis or 
mucous lining of the stomach and is a most Catarrh of 
common phase of indigestion. In acute theStom- 
cases the physician is called at once. He a ac b 

can then treat the case in its initial stage 
and cause a much more rapid recovery. 

Acute Gastritis is accompanied by nausea and vomit- 
ing and the patient should refrain from taking food for 
at least two days. To allay thirst a tablespoonful 
of water may be held in the mouth for a few moments 
without swallowing it. A slice of lemon may be 
sucked if water excites vomiting, or cold carbonated 
or acidulated waters may be sipped, a teaspoonful at a 
time, every ten or fifteen minutes. Rest of both 
body and mind must be obtained.' 

After two days begin the nourishment with water 
and a small portion of liquid food (not over two ounces) 
every two hours. Toast tea, made by pouring hot 
water over toast, oatmeal, or barley gruel (thoroughly 
strained so that no coarse matter may irritate the 
stomach), limewater and milk, and egg lemonade are 
easily digested. Increase the quantity on the fourth 
day and lengthen the time between feedings to three 
hours. Gradually increase the diet, adding semiliquid 



254 What to Eat and When 

food, noted on pages 237-238, soft-boiled eggs, moist- 
ened toast, raw oysters, etc., slowly returning to the 
regular bill of fare. 

Avoid any food difficult of digestion and any vege- 
table containing coarse fiber. Care in the diet must 
be observed for several weeks or a relapse may occur. 

Chronic Gastritis is accompanied by a thickening of 
the mucous lining of the stomach. It is usually 
caused by prolonged use of irritating foods and the 
regulation of the diet is of utmost importance. Al- 
cohol is a common cause. The difficulty begins 
gradually and the relief will be gradual. 

There is an excessive secretion of thick, tenacious 
mucus which prevents the gastric juices from mixing 
with the food. The resulting fermentation of food 
causes heartburn and produces much gas. Thirst 
may be excessive. 

The stomach needs washing. The washing may be 
accomplished by drinking two glasses of hot water at 
least an hour before breakfast, followed by stomach 
exercises, to cause a surging of the water through 
the stomach. This may be followed by a glass of 
cold water. 

This may be uncomfortable at first, causing a full 
feeling, and one may begin by drinking one glass, 
followed by stomach exercises, gradually taking 
another glass within a half-hour of the first. This, 
by means of the exercises, will wash out the mucus. 

A glass of cold water half an hour before each meal 
is recommended here, as well as for relief of indigestion. 

In many cases as much as a pint of slimy mucus 
collects in the stomach during the night. When the 
stomach cleansing by means of water drinking is 
impossible, the physician often uses a stomach tube. 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 255 

Chronic gastritis, in any of its phases, is frequently 
accompanied by constipation, which reacts on the 
stomach, and the diet should be as laxative as possible, 
without irritating the lining of the stomach. 

In case an acute attack occurs, which is likely in 
chronic cases, the diet under "Acute Gastritis" 
should be followed. 

Pancreatinized milk is an excellent food in both 
chronic and acute cases especially when they are 
severe. This is prepared by putting "pancreatin" 
a pancreatic ferment (trypsin) into fresh milk. 
Preparations of "pancreatin" are sold in the drug 
stores. Pepsin may be used in the same way for 
making peptonized milk. 

The pancreatinized milk does not form hard curds 
and readily passes through the stomach for digestion 
in the intestine. The taste is rather bitter; it may be 
disguised by flavoring. This may be given for a few 
days, followed by milk and lime water, barley and toast 
water, kumys, oatmeal gruel, meat juices, scraped 
meat (raw, boiled, or roasted), broths thickened with 
thoroughly cooked cereals, ice cream, egg lemonade, 
gelatins and whipped cream, custards and raw oysters. 

Fruit in the morning and just before retiring aid 
the intestines. Two prunes chopped up with one fig, 
or a bunch of grapes, or an apple, just before retiring 
may be eaten to assist the action of the intestines and 
the kidneys. 

Almost all fruits contain acids which increase the 
peristalsis, and the resultant flow of gastric juice. 
Cooked pears, stewed or baked apples, prunes, and 
dates are mild fruits which may be used if they agree. 
The juice of an orange on arising may be used if 
relished. 



256 What to Eat and When 

All cereals should be thoroughly cooked. 

The white meat of chicken, well masticated, is 
readily digested. 

After an acute attack, as the solid food is resumed, 
it should be given regularly and in small amounts. 

Thorough mastication is important. The food should 
be chewed until it is reduced to a pulp. 

Fats and food cooked in fat must be avoided. 
Dried beef, lean boiled ham, and salt fish agree better 
with some than fresh meats. All sweets must be for- 
bidden. Starchy foods are apt to produce "sour 
stomach." 

Avoid meat with tough fiber, too fat meat (pork), 
sausage, lobster, salmon, chicken salads, mayonnaise, 
cucumbers, pickles, cabbage, tea, coffee, alcohol, 
pastry, too much sweets, and cheese if it disagrees, j 

Five to six light meals a day are preferable to three 
heavy meals. 

The flow of gastric juices is constitutional, thus the 
regulation of digestion depends on the general vital- 
ity as well as on foods. The circulation must be 
forceful, the habit of deep breathing and of regular 
periods of complete rest of body and mind must be 
established. 

Since one with chronic gastritis is liable to have 
many idiosyncrasies, he should not be urged to eat 
foods for which he has a dislike. The easily digested 
foods should be prepared in various ways and served 
in an appetizing, dainty manner. 

There are four special phases of chronic gastritis: 
Mucous Gastritis, Hyperchlorhydria, Hypochlor- 
hydria, and Achlorhydria. 

In Mucous Gastritis there is a profuse secretion of 
mucus in the stomach. In this case it is always well 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 257 

to wash out the stomach before introducing food, as 
suggested above. 

The same general diet suggested for acute gastritis 
should be followed. 

The condition known as hyperchlor- 
hydria shows a liberal excess of hydro- ype ™ °f" 
chloric acid. The condition is common, 
and is brought on by worry, nervous excitement, 
eating when overtired, irregularity of meals, imperfect 
mastication, and excessive use of alcohol. 

The diet should be a mixed one, in about normal 
proportions. If anything, it should incline more to 
proteins than to starches. 

The hydrochloric acid is necessary for the digestion 
of proteins and some physicians give a diet consisting 
almost entirely of proteins such as eggs, lean meat, etc., 
because hydrochloric acid reduces the protein to acid 
albumin, which is less irritating to the stomach than 
the free hydrochloric acid. However, the proteins 
are stimulating to the stomach and the protein pro- 
portion should not be carried to excess. 

The best method is to follow a diet in which the 
foods have practically their normal balance — avoiding 
all irritating foods. 

The juice of one-fourth of a lemon taken one-half 
hour before the meal will decrease the secretion of 
hydrochloric acid. 

Limewater and milk may be used exclusively for two 
days; alkaline, effervescing mineral water may be 
used and then the diet should follow the general diet 
in chronic gastritis. 

Hypochlorhydria is a diminution in the amount 
of hydrochloric acid. Since this acid is essential in 
gastric digestion of proteins, a decrease in its supply 
17 



258 What to Eat and When 

diminishes the power of the stomach to digest meat, 
eggs, etc. Physicians often administer hydrochloric 
acid about one hour after a meal. It should not 
immediately follow the meal consisting of part solid 
food, because it retards salivary digestion. Acid 
fruits, such as lemonade or egg lemonade, should be 
given half an hour after the meal instead of at the 
beginning. 

Many advocate a diet omitting protein, but since 
protein foods stimulate the flow of gastric juices, 
they should not be omitted, but taken less freely. 
The meals should be at least six hours apart so as to 
allow time for digestion and to give the stomach rest. 
When there is an entire absence of hydro- 
hvdria chloric acid, as in achlorhydria, the stomach, 

of course, cannot digest proteins and this 
digestion must be accomplished entirely by the 
trypsin of the pancreatic juice. The presence of 
liquefied protein, as beef juice in the stomach, however 
acts as a stimulus to the gastric juice and is an agency 
in again starting its flow. 

The foods should be liquid, so as to pass through the 
stomach without irritating it. Clear milk must be 
excluded, because of the action of the rennin in coagu- 
lating the casein. This would irritate the stomach. 

Pancreatinized milk (see page 99) may be used as 
an article of diet, also milk with limewater, junket, 
gelatin, cream, butter, bacon, olive oil, gruels, and any 
foods which will pass through the stomach without 
change and are digested by the pancreatic juice in 
the intestines. 

Bran must be excluded from any cereals. Cereals 
or any carbohydrates cooked or masticated to a 
liquid state will pass through the stomach without 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 259 

difficulty and be digested and absorbed in the small 
intestine. 

Dilatation results from continued over- 
eating (especially when the nerves are or p r a i a 10n 
weak), or eating when overtired. The of the 

muscular walls become so weak that they Stomach 
fail to contract. Peristalsis is likewise weak, 
and the food, failing to digest promptly, ferments and 
forms gas. A dilated stomach is enlarged and its 
weight and weakness cause it to prolapse. 

In the prolapsed condition the pyloric, or lower 
orifice of the stomach, is often nearly closed, partly 
by reason of its position and partly by the weakened 
folds of the stomach walls. Because of this obstruc- 
tion to the free emptying of the contents into the duo- 
denum, it is imperative that the food be of the simplest 
form, thoroughly masticated, and perhaps predigested 
and concentrated so as to be in as small an amount 
as possible. A chunk of food could not easily pass 
through the pylorus. 

All liquid or semiliquid food should be subject to 
the chewing movements until it, also, is mixed with 
saliva. The stomach should not be overloaded with 
either food or water and for this reason six or more 
light meals a day, at regular intervals, is best. 

A dilated stomach does not necessarily indicate that 
the digestive juices are not secreted in normal pro- 
portions, and easily digested proteins need not be 
avoided. It is desirable to furnish the proteins in 
concentrated form, as in meats, so as to get the most 
nutrition with the least bulk. They should be thor- 
oughly masticated. 

Milk may be used, with limewater, if sipped slowly 
and mixed with saliva. 



260 What to Eat and When 

Sugar should be used very sparingly, because it 
ferments readily and aggravates the distention. If it 
is evident that fermented products are in the stomach, 
it should be washed out with a stomach pump. 

A tumor near the pylorus, or constriction of the 
pyloric orifice by prolapsus, will also cause dilatation 
of the stomach. 

Beef juice, any of the better grades of meats, well 
masticated and containing no gristle, limewater and 
milk, soft-cooked eggs, and well-cooked cereals and 
vegetables should constitute the diet. 

Avoid vegetables containing coarse fiber, fried foods, 
and freshly baked bread. 

Liquid with the meal should be avoided, on account 
of the tendency to overload the stomach. 

Cold water, taken a swallow at a time at intervals 
during the day, has a tonic effect on the relaxed 
muscles. It also incites the flow of gastric juice. 

The best and quickest means of correcting a pro- 
lapsed and dilated stomach is by rest in bed for several 
weeks, with special exercises to raise the viscera and 
to strengthen all abdominal muscles, as well as the 
muscular coat of the stomach itself. The food must 
be given in small quantities every hour. 

When this condition is severe, accom- 

£ r panied with severe pains and vomiting of 

St mach blood, the nourishment is given through 
the rectum for from five to ten days. Then, 
for ten days, a milk diet with bouillon, barley water, 
a beaten egg, and once a day, after the third day, 
strained oatmeal gruel, is taken. 

Limewater is added to the milk to avoid the forma- 
tion of large curds and to neutralize the acids of the 
stomach. The patient is given half a cup of milk 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 261 

every hour for three days, from 7 a.m. to 9 p.m. 
From the third to the tenth day the quantity may be 
increased to one cupful, then to a cup and a half, and 
the periods between feedings lengthened to two hours. 
If the milk is thoroughly heated, but not boiled, before 
the limewater is added, it digests more readily. 

After ten days, for the succeeding ten days the 
nourishment should be given every two hours and the 
diet varied by semiliquid foods, such as gruels, toast 
water, soft-boiled egg (once a day), beef juice, two 
softened crackers (once a day), gelatin, buttermilk, and 
strained soups. (See page 313, Semisolid Foods.) 

After twenty days the patient, if all is well, may 
very gradually resume a normal diet, beginning with 
baked potatoes, softened toast, lamb chops, a small 
piece of steak or white meat of chicken. It is im- 
perative that all food, liquid or solid, be thoroughly 
mixed with saliva and that solids be chewed to a pulp. 

Liquids must not be swallowed either hot or cold, 
but about body temperature. Cold water may be 
taken into the mouth when more palatable than warm 
and held there until about body temperature before 
it is swallowed. All liquids should be sipped, not 
swallowed in gulps. 

When the condition of ulcer has existed for some time 
complete rest in bed for from six to ten weeks is 
advisable. Either the diet suggested above or, if it is 
desired to gain in weight, a diet of milk, cream, and 
eggs may be followed. All solid food should be 
avoided. 

[INTESTINAL DISORDERS 

Most cases of intestinal difficulties may be traced 
to a clogged condition, either due to a weakness of the 



262 What to Eat and When 

nerves and of the intestinal muscles, with resultant 
weak peristalsis, or to insufficient lubrication. 

If the waste is not promptly moved through the 
intestines, irritation may result and the poisons from 
bacterial fermentation will be absorbed by the system. 

Deranged digestion in the stomach also interferes 
with digestion in the intestines. Likewise delayed 
intestinal digestion affects digestion in the stomach. 

A large number of cases of constipation 

ti " become chronic because of the failure to 
respond to Nature's call at a regular time 
each day. Many others are due to weakness of the 
muscular walls of the intestines or to the nerves con- 
trolling them. In this event the intestinal peristalsis 
is weak. 

Constipation may be mechanical, due to obstruction 
of the intestine in some part of its course, e. g., pro- 
lapsus, tumor, or a kink in the bowel itself. 

Still another cause is a failure of the liver to dis- 
charge sufficient bile into the intestines to lubricate 
the feces. 

Many chronic cases are due to the pill and drug 
habit. When one continues to take pills, the condi- 
dition brings a result similar to the feeding of "pre- 
digested" food — if the work is done for the organs 
they become lazy and rely on artificial aid. Every 
part of the body requires activity for strength. 

If the intestines are cramped by the clothing it may 
cause constipation by restraining their normal exer- 
cise during movements of the body in walking, etc. 
Exercises for the intestines should be taken morning 
and night. 

Constipation may exist even when there apparently 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 263 

is a daily movement of the bowels. Material may 
accumulate in the large intestine because only a part 
of the contents is discharged and may cause the 
unpleasant symptoms which accompany constipation. 

It may arise from irregularity in meals, or from 
overeating, thus causing derangements of digestion 
from disturbance of the normal process. 

Insufficient food may cause it, because the mass is 
not large enough to be acted on by the muscular 
movements of the intestines. 

Too much strong tea, by its astringent action, les- 
sens the secretions of mucus and causes the mass to 
become too dry. 

Too little water may be taken and the food not 
sufficiently moistened; food may be concentrated and 
leave little residue. 

Overeating, especially when the intestinal muscles 
are weak, furnishes a greater bulk than the intestines 
have the power to propel, hence a semi-paralysis and 
inactivity result. 

Anxiety and grief or worry may inhibit the action of 
the nerves and thus cause a stagnation of movement 
on the part of the bowels. 

The cause of the difficulty must be ascertained before 
relief can be gained. 

The most natural relief for constipation, therefore, 
comes through exercise, particularly when directed to 
the muscles of the stomach and of the intestines and 
to the nerve centers controlling them. 

The free use of water and such foods as figs and 
raisins, prunes, dates, grapes, apples, and rhubarb, 
which are laxative in effect, are helpful. These have 
best effect when eaten just before retiring or when the 
stomach is empty. 



264 Wnat t0 Eat and When 

The use of vegetables which furnish a large bulk 
of fiber is often beneficial. Cabbage, celery, lettuce, 
spinach, mustard greens, oyster plant, and asparagus 
consist largely of residue. Onions are also laxative, 
especially when boiled. Tomatoes possess a special 
laxative effect for many individuals. 

When derangements of digestion make raw fruits 
undesirable, they may be cooked and thus used for 
their laxative effect. They are not so laxative when 
cooked with much sugar, because much sugar may 
cause fermentation and gas. A little bicarbonate of 
soda added to acid fruits after cooking will correct 
the acidity and not so much sugar will be needed. 

Two or three glasses of water should be taken on 
rising and before retiring. This cleanses the stomach 
as well as aids in relieving the dryness of the bowel 
contents. 

Oatmeal, or any cereal containing the bran, is 
laxative. Such are bran or corn-meal bread, Boston 
brown bread made with molasses, and Graham bread. 

Children should be trained to attend to Nature's 
call regularly every day. The best time is shortly 
after breakfast. 

Inflammation or Catarrh of the Intes- 
n en tines is similar in its nature to Gastritis 

or Catarrh of the Stomach. 

Acute Enteritis, or cholera morbus, is usually caused 
by a strong irritant — either by some food which dis- 
agrees, by unripe fruits, or by a mass of undigested 
food. 

A fast of two or three days is the usual initial 
dietetic treatment. 

A free drinking of water not only soothes the irri- 
tated intestines, but it cleanses the intestinal tract 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 265 

and assists in eliminating elements of fermentation; 
if these are not eliminated, they will be absorbed into 
the blood. 

Absolute quiet in bed is necessary. 

After the fast, a liquid and semiliquid diet is fol- 
lowed until inflammation is relieved and diarrhea and 
vomiting have ceased. Milk, strained gruels, broths, 
strained soups, buttermilk, eggs (soft cooked or raw), 
beef juice, barley water, custards, junket gelatins, soft 
puddings, etc., are most nourishing and cause little 
irritation. (See page 313, Semisolid Foods.) 

Milk should be mixed with limewater to prevent the 
formation of large curds and should be sipped. Water 
should not be taken, as it tends to increase the diar- 
rhea. Ice may be held in the mouth to relieve thirst. 

All irritating foods, such as coarse vegetables, pickles, 
acid fruits and fruits with coarse seeds, candies, beer, 
wines, and salads must be omitted. 

Chronic Enteritis has the same general cause as 
acute enteritis, though its onset is slow and it takes 
a correspondingly longer time to correct. 

A milk diet for two or three weeks may be necessary 
to rest the bowels. 

When food is taken, if undigested particles appear 
in the stool, it may be necessary to use predigested 
foods for a while. 

If acute, dysentery demands complete 
rest in bed. The diet, in both acute and Dysentery 
chronic cases, must be confined to easily digested foods 
such as peptonized or pancreatinized milk (see pages 
99 and 308), boiled milk, meat juice, and the white of 
egg, beaten and served with milk. 

Blackberry brandy and tea made from wild cherry 
bark tend to check the inflammation. 



266 What to Eat and When 

During convalescence, care must be taken not to 
overfeed. Fruits and vegetables should be avoided. 
Begin a more liberal diet with an increased amount of 
beef juice, gradually adding tender beefsteak, roast 
beef, fish, white meat of chicken, eggs, custards, jelly, 
dry toast, blancmange, well-boiled rice, and other 
easily digested food. The beef and egg are particu- 
larly valuable, because of the anemia occasioned by 
the loss of blood. 

DERANGEMENTS OF THE LIVER 

The liver is not, in a strict sense, a digestive organ, 
but the digested food must pass through it and under- 
go certain chemical changes. 

For a fuller understanding of the reasons for the 
following suggestions regarding diet in liver derange- 
ments, the chapter on the "Work of the Liver," 
pages 151-152 should be reread. 

It will be recalled that the liver acts not only on the 
foods, but it also stands on guard to neutralize 
poisonous ferments, due to putrefactions absorbed 
from the intestines, and to render them harmless. 
To a limited extent it also oxidizes alcohol. 

After the gorging of a heavy meal, the overloaded 
blood and liver express themselves in a sluggishness of 
the brain and one feels mentally as well as physically 
inert. 

Since both carbohydrates and protein undergo 
chemical changes in the liver, it is evident that a diet 
consisting of an excess of either, must overwork the 
liver, not only through the nutritive food elements 
absorbed, but through the toxic substances which 
may be produced. 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 267 

The regulation of diet, when the liver is in an ab- 
normal condition, must be more in the quantity than 
in the quality of food. 

The condition of the liver depends also on the 
activity of the intestines, since the poisonous products 
from imperfectly digested and fermenting food, not 
being eliminated, will be absorbed and carried to the 
liver. If the food remains in the intestines too long, 
it is attacked by the bacteria always present there, 
fermentation results and poisons are absorbed and 
carried to the liver, which usually can render them 
harmless to the system. If for any reason the liver 
is diseased, overloaded, or its action is sluggish, these 
toxins are absorbed in larger quantities than the liver 
is able to handle, hence they reenter the blood and 
poison the system. 

The most important corrective agencies, when the 
liver is inactive, is a fast for a day or two, a free drink- 
ing of water, deep breathing, and exercise so directed 
as to bring a free supply of blood to this organ. 

It is apparent that the blood must carry its full quota 
of oxygen to assist in eliminating both the nitrogenous 
waste and the poisons. It must also be remembered 
that the liver must oxidize the waste from its own 
tissues, as well as from other parts of the system. 

This condition is due to the overproduc- 
tion of bile which may be absorbed into 
the blood to inactivity of the body and a resultant 
sluggish circulation of blood; to overwork of the 
liver due to overeating; and to insufficient breath- 
ing of pure air. It may also result from constipation 
and the resultant absorption of toxic matter, as 
previously described. 



268 What to Eat and When 

It may be occasioned also by obstruction of the 
opening of the bile duct into the intestines from an 
excess of mucus in the duodenum. In such cases 
exercises for the intestines are clearly indicated. 

In the bending, twisting, and squirming movements 
which the infant in the cradle makes, the liver is 
regularly squeezed and relaxed. The same is true of 
the free movements of an active child at play. If 
during adult life these same free movements of bend- 
ing and twisting the trunk were continued daily and 
correct habits of free breathing of pure air were 
established, there would be little call for "liver 
tonics." 

The transformation of carbohydrates in the liver is 
an important part of its work and in case of inactive 
liver the sugars and starches should be limited in the 
diet. Protein stimulates the activity of the liver, yet 
it is a mistake to allow a diet too rich in protein. 
The best method is to cut down the quantity of food. 

Two glasses of water an hour before breakfast, 
followed by brisk exercise for the vital organs and 
deep breathing, are the best remedies. 

The daily action of the bowels is imperative. 

In extreme cases a fast of two or three days, with a 
copious use of water, is recommended. Following this 
fast the diet should consist of easily digested foods, 
eliminating those containing starch and sugar in too 
great proportions, as bread, cereals, and potatoes. 
The amount should be as limited as is consistent with 
the actual necessity for rebuilding and for energy. 

The taking of fats should be restricted in bilious- 
ness. The presence of fat in the duodenum stimulates 
the flow of pancreatic juice, which in turn stimulates 
the secretion of bile, thus overworking the liver. 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 269 

Lemon stimulates the action of the gastric glands 
and thus tends to increase the liver activity. 

It has been thought that eggs and milk cause slug- 
gish liver action. There is no physiological reason for 
this if too much food is not eaten. The fact is often 
lost sight of that milk is a food as well as a beverage 
and that when milk constitutes an appreciable part of 
the diet other foods should be limited accordingly. 

The diet may be selected from the following: 

Soups. — Light broths and vegetable soup with a little bread 
toasted in the oven. 

Fish. — Raw oysters, fresh white fish. 

Meats. — Mutton, lamb, chicken, or game. 

Farinaceous. — Whole wheat or Graham bread and butter, toast 
buttered or dry, toasted crackers, cereals in small portions. 

Vegetables. — Fresh vegetables, plain salads of watercress, let- 
tuce, and celery, without oil or mayonnaise dressing. Lemon 
juice and salt may be used. 

Desserts. — Gelatins, fruits, cornstarch, ice cream, junket, 
simple puddings, — all with very little sugar. 

Liquids. — Hot water, lemonade, orangeade, toast water, butter- 
milk, loppered milk, and unfermented grape juice — not too 
sweet. 

avoid. — All rich, highly seasoned foods, candies, cheese, pies, 
pastry, pancakes, or any fried foods, salmon, herring, mackerel, 
bluefish, eels, dried fruits, nuts, and liquors of all kinds. 

Gallstones occur most often in persons 
after middle life, especially in those of . " 

sedentary habits. 

A substance called cholesterin is normally present 
in solution in bile and in the tissues. When, through 
inactivity of the liver, or when because of sedentary 
habits the bile remains too long in the system, the 
cholesterin is precipitated, and, mixed with mucus, 
it forms gallstones. 



270 What to Eat and When 

A diet composed mostly of starch and fat favors 
their formation. 

All dietetic measures should be combined with 
exercise to promote the flow of bile into the intestines. 

Two glasses of hot water should be taken in the 
morning and before retiring. Several glasses of cold 
water should be drunk through the day. 

Sweets and starches should be largely eliminated 
from the diet ; sweet fruits and root vegetables must 
be avoided. 

Fresh green vegetables and acid fruits may be 
taken. Potatoes contain calcium, but because they 
contain much more potassium, which lessens the liber- 
ation of calcium, they may also be used. 

For foods rich in calcium which should be avoided 
see page 219. 

Foods causing calcium oxalate deposits should be 
avoided as they may cause the formation of gallstones. 
For a list of these see p. 219. 

Meat, if taken, must be lean and eaten only once a 
day. Beef and chicken are the preferable meats. 
Fresh fish may be used. 

Alcohol must not be taken and coffee and tea must 
be limited in strength and quantity. 

Active exercise must be practiced daily and full 
elimination secured from the bowels. 

The person afflicted with gallstones must not sit too 
long or in a cramped position. 

The presence of fat in the duodenum increases the 
flow of pancreatic juice which, in turn, stimulates the 
flow of bile, so olive oil is often recommended in case 
of gallstones. It is questionable whether it is of 
benefit, because, as stated, much fat upsets the 
liver. 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 271 

Watch the water supply. Hard water which 
contains lime should be boiled to precipitate the 
calcium. 

DERANGEMENTS OF THE KIDNEYS 

The office of the kidneys is to eliminate from the 
system certain nitrogenous elements in solution; the 
work of the kidneys, in most conditions, is aided by 
copious drinking of water. 

The influence exerted on the function of the ex- 
cretory organs by the components of the food has not 
been given the attention it merits. 

If the fluids are not taken in sufficient amount and 
much animal food is eaten, the urine becomes more 
concentrated and may irritate the kidneys or the 
bladder and give rise to calculi (kidney stones) or to 
the deposit of uric acid. Watery vegetables, juicy 
fruits, milk, water, and most beverages, by increasing 
the output of urine, lessen its acidity and density. 

A diet limited to certain articles of food by the likes 
or dislikes of the individual, as the starches and sugars, 
too large consumption of acid fruits or too fatty foods 
may cause the appearance in the urine of abnormal 
amounts of various substances, as sugar, phosphates, 
calcium oxalate, or fatty acids. 

Acid fruits in moderation aid digestion and favor 
suitable elimination, but when eaten to excess, as 
lemons, taken two or three or more a day by those 
striving to reduce flesh, the urine is increased in acid- 
ity, and irritation of the bladder may ensue. 

Too great an amount of food tends to overwork the 
kidneys as well as the liver and various derangements 
result ; these must be treated dietetically as well as by 
medicine. 



272 What to Eat and When 

In inflammation of the kidneys (nephritis), the 

secretion of urine is lessened or may cease. 
Acute . . 

N hr'tis ^ e kidneys and digestive system must 

not be overworked and all food must be 

eliminated save milk until the kidney function is 

restored. It may be diluted with lime or Vichy, or 

skimmed milk or buttermilk may be used. 

Water flushes the kidneys and if the urine increases 
in amount when water is given its use may be con- 
tinued. When the amount of urine is diminished or 
the kidneys are not functioning at all, water, or any 
fluid or food that gives the kidneys work, must be given 
only on the advice of a physician, as serious harm may 
be done unless the inflamed kidneys are given as near 
perfect rest as possible. Sometimes even milk must 
be reduced to one pint a day. 

In the event that the kidneys do not excrete, the 
pores of the skin must be kept freely open by sweat 
baths to assist in the elimination of urea. 

Dr. Hall recommends a milk and cream diet of 
from three to seven pints a day, for a few days, according 
to the case — two parts of milk to one of cream. If the 
urine is scanty, he reduces it to one and one-half 
pints a day, taken in four or five installments. 
After the three to seven days of milk diet he 
gradually introduces starches and fats into the diet. 
This is an inflammatory condition of 
D . lg the kidneys in which albumin appears in 

the urine. It results from irritation and 
may be acute or chronic. 

The appearance of albumin in the urine does not 
always indicate disease. It may be temporary, merely 
indicating that the diet, for the time being, is too heavy 
or contains an excess of protein, especially meat. 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 273 

Several tests from one to two weeks apart are often 
necessary to determine whether the condition is merely 
temporary or is due to inefficient action of the kidneys. 

When for any reason the kidneys have difficulty 
in eliminating the nitrogenous waste of the system, 
the dietitian must eliminate protein food as closely 
as may be consistent with the body necessities. Be- 
sides restricting the amount of nitrogenous foods, the 
kidneys must be assisted in eliminating the nitrogenous 
waste and the products of inflammation by a copious 
drinking of water, unless the kidneys are so inflamed 
that complete rest is indicated. 

Hot water and hot drinks are best in the morning, 
such as toast water, barley water, cream of tartar, 
lemon and acid drinks. Unless a dropsical condition 
is present one may drink freely of cool water. 

In acute cases the patient is put on a diet of from 
two to three pints of milk a day, given one-half pint 
every three or four hours, diluted with one-third as 
much hot water. Complete rest is imperative. 

In chronic cases, exercise, judiciously directed to the 
extremities, particularly to the legs and the back, will 
do more than anything to aid the elimination of an 
excessive accumulation of fluid as in dropsy. This 
condition is usually accompanied by constipation and 
poor circulation, and exercises directed to the liver and 
bowels aid in carrying off the excess of fluid by way of 
the intestines; this will rest the kidneys. A cure 
requires patience and perseverance. 

In chronic cases it is also well to follow a milk diet 
for a number of weeks. The quantity of milk for an 
exclusive milk diet must depend on the age and size 
of the patient as well as on his ability to exercise. 
If he is confined to his room, from ten to sixteen 
18 



274 What to Eat and When 

glasses of milk a day are sufficient. If he is taking a 
great deal of exercise, he may take from eighteen to 
twenty glasses of milk a day. If he loses weight on the 
milk diet, bread and rice may be added, or potato 
soup, cereals, tapioca, and various gruels. 

If the milk is not well borne, malted milk or pre- 
digested milk with butter and cream may be substi- 
tuted. If the casein in the milk is not well digested, 
cheese must not be used. An egg once or twice a week 
and fruit and fresh vegetables may be given, but meat 
should be omitted. 

A. F. Pattee gives the following diet in Blight's 
disease. 

DIET 

Soup. — Vegetable or fish soup, broths with rice or barley. 

Fish. — Raw oysters or clams, fresh fish broiled or boiled. 

Meats. — Eat sparingly, chicken, game, fat bacon, fat ham. 

Farinaceous. — Stale bread, whole wheat bread, toast, milk 
toast, biscuits, macaroni, rice, cereals of all kinds. 

Vegetables. — Onion, cauliflower, mashed potatoes, mush- 
rooms, lettuce, watercress, spinach, celery, cabbage. 

Desserts. — Ripe raw fruits, stewed fruits, rice, tapioca, bread 
and milk puddings, junkets, cocoa. 

Liquids. — Toast water, weak tea, pure water, peptonized milk, 
malted milk, fresh buttermilk, milk and hot water in equal parts, 
whey, unfermented grape juice. 

avoid. — Fried fish, corned beef, hashes, stews, pork, veal, 
heavy bread, batter cakes, lamb, mutton, beef, gravies, beans, 
peas, malt or spirituous liquors, tobacco, coffee, ice cream, cake, 
pastry. 

This diet is tentative only and may be modified 
to suit the individual. If improvement is manifest 
after a month or two of the restricted diet, steak, roast 
beef, and eggs may be gradually added. If, when the 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 275 

urine is examined, the use of meat causes a return of 
albumin, it must be dropped. 

In these cases, active outdoor exercise, full, deep 
breathing systematically practiced at intervals, a 
calm quiet attitude of mind and care not to overeat 
and to keep the bowels active will materially aid 
recovery. 

Interference with the action of the 
kidneys is apt to result in a retention within ^ a ? r 
the system of the elements which they, in Poisoning 
normal condition, eliminate from the sys- 
tem — such as urea, uric acid, urates, sulphates, 
phosphates, etc. They are the result of the oxida- 
tion and the breaking down of the proteins of the 
body. If the kidneys do not eliminate these the 
result is a systemic poisoning, and the dietetic treat- 
ment must be such as will aid them to act freely. 

Fruits should be used freely. The citrus fruits 
(lemons, oranges, limes, etc.) are the best; they 
neutralize acids and promote the alkalinity of the 
blood. 

When the system shows an excess of uric acid, the 
chances are that the individual has not been living 
on a diet containing too large a proportion of protein, 
but that he has been eating more than he requires of all 
kinds of foodstuffs. His system thus becomes weak- 
ened and he does not breathe deeply nor exercise 
sufficiently to oxidize and throw off the waste. 

Meats, eggs, and legumes should be eliminated from 
the diet. A free drinking of water, milk with lime- 
water, cereals, buttermilk, kumys, barley water, toast 
water, lemonade, orangeade, vegetables, and fruit 
should form the diet. 



276 What to Eat and When 

Exercise and free breathing of fresh air are impera- 
tive. All food should be thoroughly masticated. 

When this condition appears it is due to 
xcess £ 0Q g reat an amoun t of animal or nitrogen- 

Acid ous f°°d- It causes dizziness, ringing in 

the ears, general nervousness, and insomnia. 

Uric acid does not render the urine acid but when 
the acidity of the urine is increased, due to too much 
animal food, the tendency of the uric acid to form a 
crystalline deposit is increased. This deposit, as 
"gravel," may occasion attacks of renal colic or 
become the basis, when mixed with mucus, for kidney 
stones or stones in the bladder. 

Headaches if due to uric acid will often cease when 
animal food is lessened. 

Too much candy or sweet foods, or too much fat, 
eaten in connection with much protein, by deranging 
the liver function, change the character of the urine 
and favor the production of uric acid, causing such 
chronic ailments as bronchitis, asthma, severe nerve 
depression, gout, and neuralgia. 

The natural relief is obtained by control of the diet, 
supplying less protein. One may either eliminate the 
proteins from the diet, or may cut down the entire 
quantity of food. Free elimination through a free 
action of the kidneys, the pores of the skin, and the 
lungs, is necessary. . 

Systematic exercise, deep breathing, copious drink- 
ing of water, and fresh air day and night, are the best 
aids. Exercise and deep breathing promote a free 
elimination of waste through the pores of the skin, and 
the free drinking of water creates a greater elimination 
through the kidneys, thus throwing off the excess of 
acid. 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 277 

The skins of fruits contain various acids which favor 
the alkalinity of the blood. Therefore it is better, 
when there is an excess of uric acid, to eat unpeeled 
fruits. Apples, eaten raw and unpeeled, because of 
the acids, are of benefit. Citrus fruits, such as lemons, 
oranges, and grapefruit, are advised. Pears, and other 
sweet or bland fruits, because of the lack of acid, are 
less valuable. 

Pea pods when young may be cooked with the peas. 
String beans, spinach, celery, and asparagus are of 
value. 
i All rich sauces and gravies must be avoided. 

Osier remarks that "gout is evidence of 
an overfed, overworked, and consequently 
clogged machine. " 

It is usually the result of high living. It most often 
attacks people past middle age, who have indulged 
in large quantities of food, especially the nitrogenous 
foods which are not thoroughly oxidized due to slug- 
gish circulation and shallow breathing. The process, 
imperfectly carried on, allows the accumulation of 
the waste material which cannot be excreted by the 
kidneys unless completely transformed by oxidation. 
These insoluble materials are deposited in the joints, 
act as irritants, and occasion the attacks of pain, 
swelling, and tenderness which usually mark the acute 
condition. 

It is most common in those who habitually overeat, 
take little exercise, or who have frequently indulged in 
alcohol. 

Sugar and fat in quantities are injurious as the 
oxidation of the protein is not carried on as completely 
when these are in excess. In fact, the entire system is 
more sluggish. Fat also interferes with gastric diges- 



278 What to Eat and When 

tion as it passes through the stomach unchanged, 
and if the particles of food have a coat of the fat 
liquefied by the heat of the stomach, it is difficult for 
the gastric juice to exert its power. 

The use of meat and sugars tends to make the urine 
acid and the use of vegetables favors its alkalinity, 
rendering it less acid. Therefore it becomes necessary 
to eliminate meat from the diet, to cut down the fats 
and carbohydrates, and to eat freely of fruits and 
vegetables. 

Alcohol is absolutely prohibited. 

In acute cases a diet of bread and milk, or toast and 
milk, with light vegetable broths, should be followed 
for from one to three days. 

In chronic cases the diet may consist of the following : 

Soups. — Vegetable broths. 

Fish. — Fresh fish, shell fish, raw oysters. 

Meats. — It is better to omit all meats. If meat is eaten at all, 
it should be confined to game, chicken, and fat bacon. 

Farinaceous. — Cereals, crackers, dry toast, milk toast, macaroni, 
graham or whole wheat bread, rye bread, oatmeal, and any of the 
breakfast foods. 

Vegetables. — Celery, lettuce, watercress, all greens, without 
vinegar, string beans, green peas, putatoes, carrots, and beets. 

Fruits. — All fruits, stewed or fresh. Unpeeled apples are 
especially recommended. (Greens, without vinegar and unpeeled 
apples, increase the action of the kidneys.) 

Desserts. — Plain puddings, junket, rice, stewed or fresh fruits. 

Liquids. — Pure water, toast water, barley water, buttermilk, 
malted milk, milk. 

Eat eggs sparingly, and in severe cases, not at all. 

avoid. — Alcohol, coffee, tobacco, dried fruits, nuts, cheese, 
candies, pastries, pies, spices, rich puddings, fried foods, vinegar, 
pickles, lemons, rhubarb, mushrooms, asparagus, sweet potatoes, 
tomatoes, gravies, patties, rich soups, lobster, salmon, crabs, 
mackerel, eel, veal, pork, goose, duck, turkey, salted, dried, 
potted, or preserved fish or meat (except bacon). 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 279 

It is not sufficient to eliminate the foods to be 
avoided. To reduce the quantity of food is also neces- 
sary; yet this must be watched as the diet should not 
be so rigid as to cause a lowering of vitality. Eating 
between meals should not be allowed. 

In an acute attack the diet should be confined to 

milk, vegetables, and fruits. 

This is the result of a serious disturbance 
/...,. rv • -j • 1 Diabetes 

of nutrition. Since its presence is made 

manifest by the appearance of sugar in the urine, it is 

considered among the derangements of the kidneys. 

However, one should not be apprehensive of diabetes 

if the urine test for a day shows sugar. This may be 

due to an excess of carbohydrates, particularly of 

sugar, in the diet a day or two previous and all trace 

of it may disappear in a day or two. If continued 

tests show an excess, nutritional disturbances are 

indicated. The treatment is almost entirely dietetic. 

The most usual form of diabetes is diabetes mellitus. 
It is supposed to be due to a disturbance in the me- 
tabolism of sugar. It may be aided by defective pan- 
creatic ferments, the lack throwing more work on the 
liver in the metabolism of sugar. 

The difficulty which confronts the dietitian is to 
prescribe a diet restricting the carbohydrates which 
will keep up the body weight and not disturb the 
nutritive equilibrium. The patient has a craving for 
sugars and starches, but the system cannot make use 
of them, and the heat and energy must be supplied by 
fats. 

The diet must consist largely of protein and fat. 
One danger lies in the tendency of acetic and other 
acids to accumulate in the blood, which affects the 
nervous system. 



280 What to Eat and When 

While, as a rule, the craving for certain foods is an 
indication that the system needs the elements con- 
tained in them, the desire of the diabetic patient for 
sugars and starches must not be indulged more than 
absolutely necessary, because of the inability of the 
system to utilize them. 

There is often a distaste for fat, but its use is imper- 
ative when it is well borne, because the weight and 
general vitality must be maintained. If all carbohy- 
drates are eliminated from the diet, the system will 
often suffer severely. Therefore the dietitian must 
determine the diet suited to the individual case, since 
complicated conditions may exist and the diet for one 
patient will work harm to another. The fleshy patient 
can stand a rigid diet, eliminating sugars and starches, 
much better than one who is thin and emaciated. 
A thin, weak patient often cannot endure too rigid a 
diet. 

The following list of foods contain least carbohy- 
drates : clear soup of meat without vegetables, all acid 
fruits, eggs, clams, and lobsters, fresh fish of all kinds, 
fresh meat of all kinds, and most smoked meat, olive 
oil, butter, peas, beans, all fresh vegetables (except 
carrots, parsnips, squash), onions, artichokes, cauli- 
flower, cabbage, and asparagus. 

Fats may be supplied in the yolks of eggs, cream, 
butter, cheese, bacon, and oily nuts, as butternuts, 
Brazil nuts, almonds, hazel nuts, walnuts, pecans; 
all should be well chewed. 

In beginning a diet, the change must not be too 
sudden. Potatoes, when they agree, may be used in 
small quantities as a substitute for bread. At least 
a week's time should be allowed for the elimination of 
all sugar and starch. Begin by eliminating sugars and 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 281 

next bread, cereals, anything made with flour, and 
potatoes. 

Sometimes it is necessary to begin with an all milk 
diet for a day or two. 

Van Noorden gives the following diet, free from 
carbohydrates, which has been in general use in 
Europe and America. 

Breakfast 

Tea or coffee, 6 ounces. 

Lean meat (beefsteak, mutton chop, or ham), 4 ounces. 

Eggs, one or two. 

Lunch 

Cold roast beef, 6 ounces. 

Celery, or cucumbers, or tomatoes with salad dressing. 

Coffee, without milk or sugar, 2 ounces. 

Dinner 

Bouillon, 6 ounces. 

Roast beef, 7^ ounces. 

Green salad, 2 ounces. 

Vinegar, 2j4 drams. 

Butter, 2}i drams. 

Olive oil, 5 drams, or spinach with mayonnaise, large portion. 

Supper, g p. M. 
Two eggs, raw or cooked. 

Van Noorden includes alcohol, in whisky, in his 
diet and most physicians follow the theory that alco- 
hol aids in the digestion and absorption of fats ; the 
need is recognized since fats must be supplied, yet 
the sweet wines and beers contain sugar while the sour 
wines contains acids, which may disturb digestion. 



282 What to Eat and When 

DERANGEMENTS OF LUNGS AND BRONCHI 

In this affection the free entrance of air 
into the lungs as well as its free exit is 
hampered by a condition of the bronchial muscles, 
the mucous membrane of the bronchi, and the muscles 
of the diaphragm. The muscles contract spasmodi- 
cally without due or proper relaxation. This causes 
a congestion and swelling of the mucous membrane 
of the bronchi which still further hamper the ingress 
and egress of air. 

Any digestive derangement which causes the forma- 
tion of gas distends the stomach and intestines, 
interferes with the free action of the diaphragm, 
and prevents the free movement of the abdominal 
muscles. 

The chemical action of the undigested and ferment- 
ing substances in the digestive tract irritates the 
nerves and may cause the spasm of the muscles. 
Digestive derangements will often cause the onset of 
an attack of asthma in those afflicted with this dis- 
order. 

The correction of the conditions in the stomach and 
intestinal tract will often ameliorate the attacks. 
Care must be taken not to overload the stomach and 
intestines, to eat easily digested foods which agree in 
the particular case. All food found to cause any 
digestive disturbance should be avoided. 

Constipation must be remedied by gentle exercises 
and massage of the abdomen as free elimination re- 
moves material which might aid in inciting an attack. 

Many asthmatics are comparatively comfortable 
during the day, the attacks coming on toward evening 
or during the night. In this case, the evening meal 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 283 

should be light and easily digested, the heavy meal 
being taken at noon. 

Hot stuffy rooms increase the disorder and plenty 
of fresh air should be secured both by night and by 
day. 

Many of these individuals make no exertion, fearing 
to bring on an attack. 

Exercise, particularly of the lungs in breathing, 
should be gradual at first and be increased as improve- 
ment is shown. Exercises directed to expansion of the 
deeper cells of the lungs and to equalize the circulation 
throughout the entire system will call the excess of 
blood from the bronchial tubes and in many cases will 
cause the difficulty to disappear. A forceful, equal- 
ized circulation, with regulation of digestion, will do 
more for asthma than any known agency. 

Derangements in digestion, common in 

this affection, are due to several conditions. u e . rct f" 
_, . ' . losis 

The increased temperature is caused 

by the efforts of the system to counteract the poisons 

produced by the action of the bacillus. The increase 

in temperature in the stomach lessens the secretions 

and the peristaltic action, causing the food to ferment 

and to be vomited or to pass practically undigested 

into the intestine, thus throwing an excess of work on 

the intestinal secretions. 

The bacilli-laden sputum, if swallowed, is apt to 
produce disorders of the stomach. This still further 
complicates the question of digestion. 

Malnutrition, because of these derangements, in- 
creases the unfavorable outlook for the patient in this 
disease. Hence the diet, especially in chronic cases, 
is of great importance. 

When means are ample, the question is much sim- 



284 What to Eat and When 

plified, because by travel, change of scene, and pleas- 
ant surroundings the appetite is stimulated and 
greater variety in the diet can be gained. For those 
in moderate circumstances, save when free sana- 
toriums exist for the care of the tuberculous, it is most 
difficult to keep the diet from becoming monotonous 
and wearisome. 

The appetite, especially in young people, is apt to be 
capricious, and it is important that the food be served 
daintily to tempt the patient to eat. 

Growing children crave sweets and as these furnish 
energy they may be allowed to tuberculous children, 
in moderation, if they seem to be well assimilated. 
Any interference with digestion, however, must be 
guarded against. 

It is better to give food in smaller quantities and 
oftener in order to guard against disturbed digestion 
from overloading the stomach. For this reason also 
it is better to give the heartiest food during the 
forenoon when the temperature is lowest. 

Milk, butter, cream, olive oil, bacon, and cod-liver 
oil furnish the fat needed by the system in the most 
easily digested form and should be taken freely, if there 
is no irritation in the stomach which will prevent their 
assimilation. Variation in their use will often secure 
greater tolerance. 

In chronic cases in which there is little or no fever, 
the fats are generally well assimilated and are 
beneficial. 

The disease causes great wasting, and fats are es- 
pecially important in counteracting this tendency. 
They may be given in alternation or be omitted from 
the diet for a day or two to avoid turning the patient 
against them. 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 285 

If diarrhea exists fats must be given guardedly and 
if fats produce diarrhea they must be lessened or 
omitted until the diarrhea is controlled. 

If one gains in flesh the chances are very strong that 
the case has been wrongly diagnosed, or that the dis- 
ease, if present, is being overcome. 

Milk, when it agrees, should form a large part of the 
diet. A glass may be taken with meals and two glasses 
between meals. The milk should be sipped slowly; 
lime water or carbonated water may be added to aid 
milk digestion. 

Buttermilk, made by means of buttermilk tablets, 
from milk from which the cream has not been removed, 
or buttermilk mixed with one-fourth cream, kumys, or 
cream and water, if relished, may take the place of 
milk. 

Eggs are also important aids in the diet, especially 
the yolk, because of the fat and iron it contains. If 
they disagree they may be taken with a few drops of 
lemon juice, orange juice, or grape juice, as these 
partially digest the egg. 

The beaten and strained whites are very easily 
digested, and in that form may be taken in quantity 
of from six to twelve a day. 

Tender, juicy meats, especially beef and mutton, 
may be taken, also meat juices and beef soups. 

Highly seasoned foods should be avoided. 

Fresh fish, clams, and oysters are permissible. 
Cereals, especially the coarse ones, that stimulate 
the bowel movements, if constipation exists, are valu- 
able; oatmeal, rice, and corn-meal mush are especially 
good ; also Graham or bran bread, and zwieback made 
with bran. If there is diarrhea bran should not be 
used. 



286 What to Eat and When 

Easily digested vegetables are of value, especially 
if cooked in little water so that most of the salts and 
other nutrients, which are so frequently boiled out of 
the vegetable, are retained. Baked apples or raw 
fruits, especially oranges, may be taken the first thing 
in the morning, or used as a dessert. Grapes, peaches, 
and other fruits in season may be taken in moderation. 

Tea and coffee are best omitted. 

The following constitutes a typical menu in ordin- 
ary cases. It must be varied to suit the individual 
case. 

Breakfast: Fruit, cereal, two eggs (poached or boiled) with or 
without a few slices of bacon; two slices of toast or 
bread, one-half ounce of butter, and a glass of milk. 

10 a. m.: Two or three eggs beaten in a glass of milk. 

Luncheon: Fish, chop, or steak, or some tender meat, one-half 
ounce of butter, one or two slices of bread, baked 
potato, or a dish of rice or hominy, green vegetables, 
or a salad of lettuce or tomato with olive oil, a 
dessert of custard or junket or some other nutritious 
dish, and a glass of milk. 

3 p. m.: Milk and eggs, meat broth and egg, milk and egg 
custard, or Graham crackers and milk. 

Dinner: Soup if desired, a glass of milk, a liberal helping of 
some special meat, roast beef, lamb, or mutton, 
chicken or turkey, potatoes, or a farinaceous vege- 
table, and a green vegetable, dessert, and a small 
piece of cheese. 

This menu approximates the number of calories 
desirable in cases of tuberculosis that have not ad- 
vanced to a stage in which complete rest is necessary. 
In that case a liquid or semiliquid diet is given. 

When it is necessary that the diet be less expensive, 
beans, lentils, and eggs may take the place of meat at 
some meals, and oleomargarine may be substituted for 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 287 

butter. Milk and eggs, however, in the quantity 
advised, should be taken if possible. 

If signs of overfeeding appear, due to the lessened 
activity of the digestive organs, shown by biliousness, 
coated tongue, etc., the food may be lessened in quan- 
tity until the condition is corrected. 

If the tongue becomes coated the mouth should 
receive the care directed on page 95. 

In all cases of weak lungs and chronic lung trouble, 
the diet should consist of easily digested foods. Those 
that cause flatulence should be avoided, as the dis- 
tended stomach presses on the diaphragm and inter- 
feres with proper breathing and with the heart action. 

DERANGEMENTS OF THE NERVES 

No disturbance in any part of the body requires less 
medicine than a disturbance in the nerves. The 
correction must come through general hygienic treat- 
ment and directing the mind to optimistic thoughts. 

Regular exercise, alternated with regular rest 
periods, the formation of the habit of complete nerve 
relaxation, the general regulation of an easily digested, 
nutritious diet, with deep breathing exercises, are the 
best remedies. The patient should be out of doors as 
much as possible and, unless too weak, should be 
employed at light work for mental diversion. 

In cases of Neurasthenia, or "tired 

if 11 ., 1 1 Neuras- 

nerves, all vital organs are more or less thenia 

affected, because the nerves do not properly 
direct digestion, absorption, assimilation, or elimina- 
tion. 

The excessive use of stimulants, tea, coffee, or 



288 What to Eat and When 

alcohol, is often an exciting cause, because of over- 
stimulation of an already exhausted nervous system. 

Complete rest of body and mind must be secured. 

The diet should be light and of easily digested foods, 
but must be nutritious and taken regularly and sys- 
tematically. Each case needs individual treatment, 
and the diet must be that most easily assimilated by 
the individual. 

A free, correct breathing of fresh air, day and night, 
is imperative. 

It is important also to thoroughly masticate all food 
and drink freely of water. 

A change of thought, induced by a change of scene 
or companions, is helpful. 

One of the most essential treatments of neurasthenia 
is to surround the patient with love and tenderness, 
but the patient should be led to avoid self-pity. 
This sets up a disagreeable trend of thought which 
relaxes nerve and vital forces and disturbs nutrition. 
Sympathy, good cheer, and an attitude of courageous 
optimism are the best nerve tonics. 

Due to the weakened condition of the nerves, 
troubles which at other times seem trifles are as 
mountains and very real. Patience and intelligent 
sympathy, not apparent pity, are the best of medicines. 

The tone of the nervous system is quickly altered 
by the state of mind of the individual. The reaction 
is a double one, constituting a "vicious circle." The 
nerves, disordered from worry, excessive fatigue, or 
other drains on the vitality, as a persistent pessimistic 
outlook on life, do not stimulate the natural digestive 
processes. The faulty digestion may fail to prepare 
a sufficient amount of food for use by the system. 
The nerves are thus underfed, which still further in- 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 289 

creases their inability to send motor and secretory 
impulses to the digestive and eliminative organs. 
Emaciation, general debility, and anemia may result. 

Hence the importance, in the relief of any nervous 
condition, to see first that the attitude of mind be calm 
and quiet with the substitution of thoughts of hope 
and cheer for those of gloom and depression. The 
afflicted one must make a brave struggle because the 
tired body affects his thoughts as well as his thoughts 
his body. 

There is no one food or set of foods which directly 
affect any nervous trouble unless this trouble be 
localized by disturbance in some particular organ. 
Then the effort must be to correct the difficulty in that 
organ. 

Rest is imperative. 

If thin, a fat-building diet should be followed to 
store energy-building reserve in the nerve centers. 

In many cases of nerve debility the nerves seem to 
be stronger in the latter part of the day. When this 
is the case the hearty meal should be eaten at this 
time. 

The condition of the blood is affected by 
the lack of its necessary ingredients, which 
may occur through faulty digestion as well as through 
improper diet. The resultant anemia of the nerves 
may produce neuralgic pains in any one or several of 
the tissues and organs, as the stomach, the intestines, 
the muscles, or the liver, etc. Neuralgia of the liver 
is sometimes mistaken for gallstone colic. 

When underlying conditions of disease have been 
excluded by means of careful tests of the urine and 
blood, the diet becomes of importance and may result 
in the disappearance of the pain. 
19 



290 What to Eat and When 

These pains occur chiefly in those who take little 
exercise and use improper food, which does not give 
the correct proportion of the needed elements to the 
system. 

Exercise, as the body is usually weak, should be 
begun moderately but as soon as possible be made 
brisk and active to stimulate the vital organs to a 
more perfect performance of their function. 

Plenty of oxygen must be secured by day and night 
and thorough elimination be maintained. 

The diet must be nutritious and richer than is 
ordinarily taken. Milk, butter, cream, bacon, olive 
oil, and all fatty food should be freely used if assimi- 
lated. Beefsteak, roast beef, fresh vegetables, and 
eggs are valuable. Cocoa or chocolate, a glass of milk 
with a beaten egg, or a cup of broth into which an egg 
has been beaten may be regularly taken between 
meals. 

If the digestion is feeble, light foods should first 
be taken and increased as the system becomes able 
to assimilate more hearty food. 

Coffee, tea, highly spiced foods, alcohol, fried food, 
rich pastry, and much candy or sweet stuffs should be 
avoided. 

Pain referred to the liver, if not caused by gallstones, 
usually indicates overwork of that organ, and fats, 
sweets, and starches should be avoided to give the 
liver rest. 

Pain referred to the stomach is often caused by 
tobacco smoking or improper food, as too much candy 
or preserves, or too strong tea or coffee. Attention to 
the diet will usually relieve this variety of pain. If 
the pain comes on when the stomach is empty, due 
to a disorder of the nerves, the food should be lessened 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 291 

in quantity, be light, easily digested, and taken at 
shorter intervals. 

Many conditions of the system due to dietetic 
errors which result in impoverished blood are accom- 
panied by pains in the stomach. These are often 
neuralgic. 

Poor assimilation of foods or indigestion produces 
pain because the tone of the nervous system is affected 
from the poor blood. 

Neuralgia of the stomach often occurs in anemic 
conditions associated with constipation. In these 
cases a good, nutritious, but easily digested diet and 
better elimination will often cure, but as the changes 
in the blood and nerves are slow, one must be patient 
and persistent. 

There is no better nerve tonic than pure air, 
exercise, cheerful thoughts, and rest. 

Sweets, fried food, rich sauces, pastry, and highly 
seasoned food should be avoided. 

When neuralgia of the stomach, due to an underly- 
ing condition such as rheumatism, gout, or diabetes 
occurs, the diet appropriate to the condition will often 
affect the cure of the neuralgia. 

The diet is of the greatest importance in 

Chor68. 

this difficulty, as it is usually accompanied 

by anemia. Rest and a very nourishing and easily 
digested diet are essential. Sometimes a complete 
rest in bed and a milk diet, or a diet composed largely 
of milk, is the best means of treatment. 

If possible the patient should be isolated and in the 
care of a trained nurse who is naturally cheerful and 
bright. 

Children are especially liable to this malady. They 
are usually anemic and care should be exercised that 



292 What to Eat and When 

they be not overworked in school and that they retire 
early and get from ten to twelve hours' sleep. 

Their eyes must be kept from strain and the ner- 
vous system not allowed to become tense from too 
much excitement, as teasing by playmates or the 
family, etc. 

They should be given the diet for Anemia on page 
249. 

DIET IN SKIN DISEASES 

An improper diet or a lowered nerve tone are often 
shown by the condition of the skin. 

When the waste of the system is not being properly 
eliminated through the other excretory organs the 
skin is required to throw off more than its normal 
amount. 

The muddy complexion in biliousness or the conges- 
tion of the facial capillaries in the alcoholic are familiar 
examples. 

Overeating, especially of food too rich or too concen- 
trated, causes fermentation from non-digestion,. x>r 
imperfect oxidation, due to too large an amount of 
nutriment for the amount of oxygen furnished to 
the tissues. 

An inactive skin results in an accumulation of fat 
in the sebaceous glands with clogging of the ducts; 
germ infection in these clogged glands often results in 
pimples and boils. An excess of acid in the secretion 
of the sweat glands irritates the skin and causes 
eruptions. 1 

Chronic skin troubles are always increased and 

1 For treatment of pimples, see Let's Be Healthy, by Susanna 
Cocroft. 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 293 

made more troublesome when there are errors in the 
diet, and they are often benefited and in some cases 
cured when the dietetic errors are corrected. 

Skin troubles often occur when for any reason the 
nervous system is run down, because the weakened 
nerves cause the tissues or organs they supply to 
become inactive. The skin thus becomes affected 
with the rest of the body and derangements of its 
function appear. Increasing nerve tone will result 
in a disappearance of the skin disorders. This takes 
time. 

All rich food and highly seasoned preparations, veal, 
pork, tea, coffee, pastry, too much sweets and fats, 
and any fruits and vegetables that cause flatulence 
should be avoided. 

A diet of fruit, water,'and Graham bread for three 
or four days, every week or two, daily exercise and 
deep breathing of pure air will usually clear the 
skin. 

The skin of the face is materially cleared by the use 
of facial exercises which promote its activity and the 
elimination of waste. Exercises for increasing the 
tone of the skin and the muscles are as essential for 
the face as for the body. 

In all skin troubles alcohol must be prohibited. 

This is characterized by distressing itch- 
ing and may be caused by any article of ,„. * 
food which disagrees. A more or less 
irritant food or one difficult of digestion, such as 
strawberries, shellfish, pork, cheese, and sausage, are 
the foods which most usually produce it, if taken into 
an inactive stomach. When the intestines are in a 
sluggish condition the stomach does not act well, and 



294 What to Eat and When 

any food which does not digest promptly is liable to 
excite an attack. 

It is remedied, by eating very lightly, by fasting for 
a day or two, by drinking much water, exercising, 
breathing deeply, and securing activity of the bowels. 
Care must be taken to avoid foods known to disagree. 
The cause of this disorder is often difficult 
to ascertain, but it is aggravated or relapses 
occur when too much or too rich food is eaten. The 
skin is not able to dispose of all the material sent to it. 

It often occurs in those who are excessive eaters of 
meat. 

The diet may have to be confined to fruit, bread and 
milk, or crackers and milk for a few weeks. 

Meat, if allowed, should be taken sparingly and not 
oftener than once a day — better only every other 
day. Beef and chicken are the preferable meats. 
If no improvement occurs, or if it be slight, meat 
should be omitted altogether. Eggs may be sub- 
stituted for meat. A little fresh fruit, if thoroughly 
ripe, may be taken, but all made desserts must be 
avoided and very little sweets used. Cracked wheat, 
or other wheat cereal, with a little cream, may be eaten. 

Oatmeal may provoke an attack because of the 
amount of fat in it. Foods may cause an attack in 
one case that have no detrimental action in another. 

Skin eruptions, eczema-like, often occur if for any 
reason the diet has been too limited, as in the semi- 
starvation seen in poor children. In these cases a 
more nutritious diet will often cure. 

Bananas, apples, cabbage, or fried foods, often 
cause a temporary attack or aggravate an existing 
condition. 

The food must be thoroughly masticated, must be 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 295 

taken at regular times, and not in excess. As this 
condition sometimes accompanies other diseases, any 
underlying condition must be sought, but all diet 
should be as simple as the needs of the system 
will bear. The foods which are found to increase the 
irritation of the skin are the ones to be avoided in 
each case. 

The all-prevalent American habit of 
eating fried food often produces an intense (1 . u ^ u ? 
itching of the skin in various parts of the 
body. It occurs often in those who eat food highly 
seasoned with pepper or other condiments. The 
articles of food causing the overstimulation must be 
avoided, and all fried food, pastries, or food contain- 
ing much fat, must be greatly lessened or omitted 
altogether. 

Itching is sometimes caused during the change of 
seasons due to the effect of the changing temperature 
on the nerves of the skin. To rub the skin with oil for 
two or three days to soften the dead cells and to aid 
their removal from the surface will secure a better 
circulation in the skin and help to eliminate the cause 
of the itching. A free drinking of water, fresh air, and 
exercise will help the condition. 

The rapidly changing system of the 
growing boy and girl is especially liable to 
disorders, due to improper eating, irregular habits, 
worry, lack of rest, or improper food. Eruptions, 
especially on the face, appear as a result. The se- 
baceous glands are especially active, and any alter- 
ation in the structure of the blood, due to deranged 
digestive processes and defective elimination by the 
skin, causes too great an amount of deposit in the 
fat glands. Their contents become hardened and 



296 What to Eat and When 

infected by germs, with consequent irritation and 
reddening, and the condition known as acne is the 
result. 

Once well established it is difficult to cure, but it 
often rapidly improves under a simple diet, rested 
nerves, cheerful, kind thoughts, and better digestion 
and elimination. 

The food should be thoroughly masticated. Young 
people are prone to eat too hastily, and thus not 
thoroughly mix the food with saliva. If careful 
attention is paid to mastication of the food, water at 
meals is an aid to digestion. Water should be taken 
freely between meals, on rising and before retiring, 
for its diuretic and laxative effect. 

All candy, and sweets, hot breads, corn bread, 
pastry, soups with much fat, rich hashes and sauces, 
fried food, pork, and veal should be eliminated from 
the diet. 

A badly blotched face is an embarrassment, and no 
restriction in the diet should be deemed a hardship 
as a means to an improved digestion, increased mental 
vigor, and improved health. 

A pimple on the face should be treated as antisepti- 
cally as a boil. The pus from a pimple which has 
"come to a head" should not be allowed to infect the 
surrounding skin. Infection may take place from 
towels or wash cloths used by one afflicted with acne. 
Care should be exercised to sterilize the surrounding 
skin by peroxide of hydrogen or alcohol before a pimple 
is opened and its contents should be taken up with 
absorbent cotton. A pimple should never be severely 
squeezed as the skin will be irritated and other pimples 
may result. 

Often the infection from one pimple is spread by the 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 297 

hands or by the wash cloth. Care should be taken 
to avoid this. 

Exercise directed to the facial muscles and to the liver 
and digestive organs, deep breathing, plenty of oxygen 
by night and day, wholesome thoughts, plenty of sleep, 
and simple food, will eliminate or improve most skin 
difficulties. Care should be taken, by frequent bathing 
and friction baths, to aid the eliminative work of the skin. 

Since the medical profession is unable to 
- , . . 1 . -i . • '. • Rheumatism 

determine just what rheumatism is, it is 

difficult to prescribe a diet. The theory so long be- 
lieved that it is caused by an excess of uric acid in the 
system is no longer held by most of the advanced 
physicians. Uric acid, however, sometimes accom- 
panies the disease. 

Some authorities hold that it is a nerve difficulty; 
others that it is caused by an excess of lactic acid; 
others hold that it is caused by infection from the 
tonsils and the gums. 

Assuming that it is due to the failure of the system 
to promptly eliminate its waste, whether this failure 
to eliminate be through a weakened condition of the 
nerves, and the consequent failure to properly direct 
the body activities, the correction of the difficulty 
must lie in building up the general vitality and in 
aiding the system in its elimination. 

Hot sweat baths, a free use of water, and a free use 
of fruits and fruit juices, particularly the citrus fruits, 
such as lemons, oranges, limes, etc., are desirable in 
moderation, because they increase the alkalinity of the 
blood, and because of their diuretic effect. Lemon- 
ade, orangeade, and all fresh fruits and vegetables 
are diuretic. 



298 What to Eat and When 

The diet should be cut down in quantity. If an 
excess of uric acid exists, meat may be eliminated and 
the suggestions given in the diet for Gout may be 
followed. 

The food must be plain and well cooked, not highly 
seasoned, and the amount must be confined to the 
needs of the system as shown by the general condition. 

Regular exercise, until the body is thoroughly 
heated, deep breathing of pure air day and night, and 
a copious drinking of water are necessary. 

No definite diet can be given here for 
flesh building, because a lack of sufficient 
fat to round out the figure is due to faulty digestion 
or assimilation. 

It may be that the strength of the muscles and 
nerves of the stomach, liver, and intestines should be 
built up by exercises and deep breathing, and it may 
be that the habit of nerve relaxation must be estab- 
lished. When the nerves are tense much nourish- 
ment is consumed in nervous energy and the nerves to 
the digestive organs and muscles being disordered, 
they interfere with digestion and assimilation. 

It is apparent that the cause of the lack of flesh 
must first be corrected. Merely to give a fat-build- 
ing diet may overload deranged digestive organs 
with sugars, starches, and fats, further weakening 
them. 

Often leanness is due to inability to digest the 
starches or sugars, and when this is the case the con- 
dition must be remedied by strengthening the diges- 
tive organs through exercises for the muscles of the 
stomach and intestines, exercises to create a free 
activity of the liver and to strengthen the nerves 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 299 

controlling digestion. Deep breathing habits to in- 
sure sufficient oxygen to put the waste in condition 
for elimination are necessary. Most often sufficient 
food is eaten, but due to nerve tension or to sluggish 
circulation, particularly through the vital organs, it 
is not assimilated. 

Usually, however, bodily flesh may be increased 
by increasing the liquids and the carbohydrate con- 
sumption and also the fat if these are assimilated. 

If habits of life, overwork, improper food, unhealthy 
thoughts, nerve exhaustion, excessive nerve tension, 
or disease are responsible, they must first be corrected. 
Often the nerve tension must be relaxed by change 
of habit of both body and mind before the flesh will 
accumulate. 

There must be no mental strain, and plenty of sleep 
must be secured. 

If they can be assimilated, the diet should contain 
soups, butter, milk, cream, cocoa, chocolate, well- 
cooked cereals, as oatmeal, bread, tapioca, or rice 
puddings with cream and sugar, bread, potatoes, 
leguminous foods, as peas and beans, cake, honey, 
especially sweet fruits, carrots, parsnips, and other 
vegetables ; meat not oftener than once a day. 

Vinegar and too much spice, pastry, coffee, and tea 
should be avoided. 

Thefree drinking of liquid is most important. 

Obesity is caused by a disturbed balance 
of nutrition occasioned, often, by more food ~ 
being taken than the body requires. The resultant 
fat is deposited in and among the tissues. 

It is most often seen in those in middle life of seden- 
tary habit who continue to eat as heartily as ever 



300 What to Eat and When 

without using a little thought to determine the actual 
body needs for food. 

An excess of fat is often seen in light eaters, how- 
ever. This is usually due to a weakness of nerve 
tissue, which does not direct the regular activities of 
the body — digestion assimilation, elimination, etc. — 
with sufficient force to burn up the normal amount 
of fat in automatic activities. 

In all cases breathing is usually faulty, oxidation is 
incomplete, and little exercise for the vital organs is 
taken. Anemia may exist in such individuals. 

The body fat is formed from various elements in 
foods, and a food which may cause obesity in one 
individual may not produce it in another. Fat 
meats, alcoholic drinks, or the excessive use of starches 
and sugars may cause it. The food at fault in each 
case must be determined and largely reduced or 
eliminated from the diet. 

Many obesity cures are in existence, and have had 
considerable vogue from time to time. Anti-fat 
remedies are dangerous, as they lower the vitality of 
the system and render it liable to be attacked by dis- 
ease. All such remedies act by decreasing the appe- 
tite and causing impairment of the digestion. 

The rational method is to limit both the amount of 
food and the liquid to be taken, to increase oxidation 
by deep breathing and exercise. By restricting the 
carbohydrates and fats consumed the body calls on 
that stored in the tissues. In obesity, unless there 
is an underlying condition of disease, the amount of 
water should be limited while reducing and none 
should be drunk with the meals. Soup, milk, and 
all juicy fruits and all foods made from cereals should 
be taken sparingly; sugar must usually be forbidden 



Diet in Abnormal Conditions 301 

and fat in the food limited to a little butter. One 
need not starve under this treatment for the diet may- 
be varied enough to prevent monotony even though 
restricted. 

Fresh green vegetables, fruit, and lean meat should 
form the main ingredients of the diet, but if gastric 
disturbances arise the diet must be varied to correct 
them. Meat should be eaten but once a day. 

Extremes in diet should be strictly avoided; a sud- 
den restriction of diet produces changes in the blood 
which may do harm. For this reason the amount of 
food taken should be gradually but steadily reduced 
and one article after another eliminated until the 
system becomes accustomed to the reduction. 

Thorough elimination must be secured through 
exercise and deep breathing. 

All alcoholic liquors must be omitted. 

All diets for obesity must be prescribed for the in- 
dividual condition. A diet suited to one person may 
be entirely unsuited to another. For this reason, and 
because of the danger of one following a diet which 
may be unsuited to the condition, diets for obesity are 
not given here. 

Exercise and deep breathing must constitute an appre- 
ciable part of reduction methods to cause a combustion 
of the fat liberated. These are the natural, scientific 
means of reduction. 

If one reduces by diet alone the excess of fat may not 
come from the part desired. One is likely to show the 
results first in the face and neck. One should exer- 
cise the parts desired to be reduced so as to oxidize 
the fat stored about these particular tissues. 

A large number of the obese are afflicted with rheu- 
matism, sluggish livers, sluggish action of the intes- 



302 What to Eat and When 

tines, and weak nerves, and the diet must be governed 
accordingly. 

The regulation of food for reduction of flesh must 
also be governed by age, sex, by the manner of breath- 
ing, and by the amount of daily exercise. The food 
must be regulated in accordance with the quantity of 
carbohydrates and fats daily consumed in heat and 
energy. 

A rational study of the needs of the system and a 
persistent following of the indicated regimen will result 
in a steady reduction, renewed vitality, and a sense of 
"being fit. " The better elimination secured by exer- 
cise and increased oxygen will aid the muscles to re- 
lease the fat which may have caused them to become 
flabby. 

Reduction must not be accomplished too suddenly, 
but it can be gained by a little self-denial and deter- 
mination. 

One who carries too much fat is much more liable to 
gout, rheumatism, apoplexy, high blood pressure, 
asthma, and bronchial affections. 

When an individual is recovering from 
the g an ^ ness tne appetite often becomes 
valescent excessively active, and his demands for 
food, if yielded to by the family or attend- 
ant, may produce digestive derangements from which 
recovery is slow. 

On the other hand, too much food is often urged on 
the convalescent from a mistaken idea that large 
quantities of food are necessary in order to rebuild 
the enfeebled system. 

Care must be taken not to return too rapidly to a 
solid diet when a liquid diet has been followed for some 



1 Diet in Abnormal Conditions 303 

time. The digestive system shares in the general 
weakness and must not be overloaded. 

The more easily digested foods, as ice cream, milk, 
tapioca, crackers and cream or cream toast, cream 
soups and meat broths thickened with bread crumbs 
rolled from toasted bread, custards, stewed fruits, 
corn meal, mush, in some conditions, cornstarch blanc- 
mange, boiled rice, and poached eggs may be given. 

Later, when meat is added to the diet it should be 
scraped or finely minced so as to give the stomach as 
little work as possible until it regains its tone. 

Potatoes, if allowed, should be baked or mashed. 

Sweetbreads in cream, sponge cake or lady fingers 
with light cream may also be allowed. 

At least a week should be taken in returning to a 
solid diet and the orders of the physician must be 
strictly followed. Pickles, nuts, or solid meats should 
not be allowed. They will often occasion a return of 
fever and possibly a relapse. 

After typhoid fever or other lingering illness, the 
appetite is usually much increased, but great care must 
be exercised not to allow solid food before the condi- 
tion of the stomach and intestines shows that danger 
is past. It is usual not to allow solid food in typhoid 
fever for two weeks after the fever has disappeared. 

It is possible to make great variety in the diet even 
if it be light and easily digested and common sense 
must govern in the kind as well as the quantity of 
food allowed the convalescent. 

Scraped beef or scraped chicken may be seasoned, 
lightly pan broiled, and made into a sandwich. The 
first solid meat may be creamed sweetbread, a bit of 
broiled tenderloin steak, or breast of chicken. 

It is better to give small amounts both because of 



304 What to Eat and When 

the lessened work of digestion and because large 
amounts of food often destroy rather than aid the 
appetite. 

If the appetite is capricious, or lacking, it needs to be 
stimulated by food appetizingly prepared and daintily 
served. A sloppy tray with half -cold tea or coffee 
will often cause complete loss of appetite. 

The face and hands of an invalid should always be 
bathed before a meal ; the fresh feeling induced is often 
an aid to the appetite. The mouth should be carefully 
cleansed after eating in order that no fermenting food 
particles may be carried into the stomach to cause 
disturbance there. Swabbing the mouth with cotton 
dipped in an alkaline wash or rinsing the mouth with 
listerine and water or peroxide of hydrogen and water 
will add greatly to the comfort of the sick, especially 
when the tongue is coated and the mouth bitter. 

Great care should be taken not to allow bread 
crumbs to fall into or under the bedclothes, as a 
small bread crumb is often a source of great discomfort. 
The skin is especially sensitive and a small bread 
crumb may so disturb the mind as to cause a patient, 
otherwise doing well, to become restless and disturbed. 

The invalid frequently forgets to ask for water and 
the attendant should see that a sufficient amount of 
water is taken. A glass of water should be placed 
where it is within easy reach and it should not be 
allowed to become warm. Cool water is one of the 
prime requisites in the invalid's dietary. 



CHAPTER XI 

RECIPES FOR FOODS FOR INVALIDS AND SEMI-INVALIDS 

THE purpose is not to give such recipes as are 
found in ordinary cookbooks, but simply to 
suggest foods useful for invalids, for semi-invalids, or 
for chronic, abnormal conditions of digestive organs. 

Water. Pure and carbonated; mineral waters con- 
taining iron, sulphur, lithium, etc. 

Hot drinks should be served at a temperature of 
from 122 to 140 degrees F. When water is used as a 
hot drink it should be freshly drawn, brought to a 
boil, and used at once. This sterilizes and develops 
a better flavor. 

Cold water should be thoroughly cooled, but not 
iced, unless ice water is sipped very slowly and held 
in the mouth until the chill is off. Water is best 
cooled by placing the receptacle on ice rather than by 
putting ice in the water. 

Fruit Juices. Under fruit juices are: grape juice, 
apple juice, currant juice, pineapple juice, orangeade, 
and lemonade. 

They are especially grateful to fever patients and 
are often used to stimulate the appetite. They are 
particularly valuable for the acids which they contain, 
which aid the action of the kidneys and the peristaltic 
action of the digestive tract; they also increase the 
alkalinity of the blood. 

»o 305 



306 What to Eat and When 

Apples contain malic acid, lemons citric acid, and 
grapes tartaric acid. The ferment in the ripe pine- 
apple juice aids in the digestion of proteins. 

Lemonade. Wash and wipe a lemon. Cut a slice from the 
middle into two pieces to be used in the garnish before serving; 
then squeeze the juice of the rest of the lemon into a bowl, keep- 
ing back the seeds. Add sugar and boiling water; cover and put 
on ice to cool ; strain and pour into a glass. 

Fruit Lemonade. To change andVary the flavor, fresh fruit of 
all kinds may be added to strong lemonade, using boiling water 
as directed above. 

Egg Lemonade. Beat an egg thoroughly, add 2 tablespoonfuls 
of sugar, 2 tablespoonfuls of lemon juice, and gradually pour in one 
cup of cold water. Stir until smooth and well mixed. Serve 
thoroughly cold. This drink is very easily digested, the lemon 
having partly digested the egg; 2 tablespoonfuls of sherry or port 
may be added. 

Bran Lemonade. Mix one-quarter cup of wheat bran with 2 
cups of cold water. Allow this to stand overnight and in the 
morning add the juice of a lemon. 

Pineapple Lemonade. Mix one-half cup of grated pineapple 
with the juice of 1 lemon and 2 tablespoonfuls of sugar; add one- 
half cup of boiling water, put on ice until cool, then add 1 cup of 
ice-cold water. Strain and serve. 

Grape Lemonade. To 1 cup of lemonade, made as directed 
above, rather sweet, add one-half cup of grape juice. 

Effervescing Lemonade. To the juice of 1 large lemon add a 
lump or two of sugar which has been rubbed on the rind. 
Pour on it half a pint of cold or ice water. Add half a tea- 
spoonful of bicarbonate of soda after it has been placed in the 
tumbler. 

Orangeade. One orange, 1 teaspoonful of sugar, three-quarters 
of a coffee cup of water. Wash and wipe the orange. Squeeze 
the juice into the sugar. Add the cold water which has pre- 
viously been boiled. Strain. 

Apple Water. Slice 1 pound of apples, put in a jar with one_ 

1 Many of the recipes given for fruit beverages are adapted 
from Practical Dietetics by Alida Frances Pattee, Publisher, Mt. 
Vernon, N. Y. 



Recipes for Foods and Invalids 307 

fourth of a pound of brown sugar. Pour over apples and sugar 
1 gallon of boiling water. When cool put the apples through a 
colander. Bottle but do not cork. Keep in a cool place. May- 
be poured over toasted bread. 

Mixed Fruit Drink. Mix one-quarter cup of grated pine- 
apple, the juice of half a lemon, the juice of half an orange, I cup 
of boiling water, and sugar to taste. Put on the ice until cool. 
Strain and add more cold water and sugar according to taste. 

Pineapple Juice. Pour one-half cup of pineapple juice over 
crushed ice and serve in a dainty glass. This is especially helpful 
in cases of weak digestion and in some throat troubles — as stated 
above, the pineapple aids protein digestion. 

Lemon Whey. Heat I cup of milk in a small saucepan, over 
hot water, or in a double boiler. Add 2 tablespoonf uls of lemon 
juice; cook without stirring until the whey separates. Strain 
through cheesecloth and add two teaspoonfuls of sugar. Serve 
hot or cold. Garnish with small pieces of lemon. 

Wine Whey may be made in the same way, using one-quarter 
cup of sherry wine to 1 cup of hot milk. 

Grape Juice, Apple Juice, and Currant Juice are tonics and make 
a dainty variety for the sick room. They should be used accord- 
ing to their strength, usually about one-third juice to two- 
thirds water. They should be kept cold and tightly corked until 
ready to serve. 

Grape Lithia. Add 4 ounces of Lithia* water to 1 ounce of 
grape juice and 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar. 

Grape Nectar. Boil together 1 pound of sugar and one-half 
pint of water until it begins to thread. Remove from the fire 
and when cool add the juice of 6 lemons and 1 quart of grape 
juice. Let stand overnight. Serve with ice water, Apollinaris, 
or plain soda water. 

Tea Punch. Pour boiling lemonade, sweetened to taste, over 
tea leaves. Allow the liquid to stand until cool. Then strain 
and serve with shaved ice and slices of lemon. This makes a 
delicious cooling drink for hot weather. 

* LIQUID FOOD 

Under this heading such liquids are given as are 
actual foods. 



308 What to Eat and When 

Milk. Milk is a complete food and a perfect 
food for infants, but not a perfect food for adults. 
It may be used as 

Whole or skimmed ; 

Peptonized; boiled; 

Sterilized; pasteurized; 

Milk with lime water, Vichy or Apollinaris ; 

With equal parts of farinaceous liquids; 

Albuminized milk with white of egg; 

Milk with egg yolk, flavored with vanilla, cinnamon, 
or nutmeg; 

Milk flavored with coffee, cocoa, or meat broth; 

Milk punch ; milk lemonade ; 

Kumys; kefir or whey, with lemon juice, as above. 

Milk and Cinnamon. Boil in one pint of new milk sufficient 
cinnamon to flavor it and sweeten with white sugar. 

Egg Preparations. These consist of: 

Albumin water (diluted white of egg), flavored with 
fruit juice; 

Egg lemonade ; egg orangeade ; 

Egg with meat broth ; 

Egg with coffee and milk; 

Chocolate eggnog. 

Often the white of egg, dissolved in water or milk, 
is given when the yolk cannot be digested because of 
the amount of fat which it contains. 

When one is inclined to biliousness, the egg is better 
digested if beaten in wine. 

The albuminous or egg drinks are best prepared 
cold. 

Eggnog. To make eggnog, separate the white and the yolk, 
beat the yolk with three-quarters of a tablespoonful of sugar and 



Recipes for Foods for Invalids 309 

a speck of salt until creamy. Add three-quarters of a cup of milk 
and 1 tablespoonful of brandy. Beat the white until foamy, add 
to the above mixture, and serve immediately. A little nutmeg 
may be substituted for the brandy. The eggs and milk should be 
chilled before using. Eggnog is very nutritious. 

Egg Broth. Beat the yolk of I egg, add I tablespoonful of sugar 
and a speck of salt. Add I cup of hot milk and pour it on grad- 
ually. Flavor with nutmeg. 

Dried and rolled bread crumbs may be added, or beef, mutton, 
or chicken broth may be used in place of the milk, and the sugar 
may be omitted. The whole egg may be used if desired. 

This is very delicious made with beef broth, instead of hot 
milk. Pineapple juice or coffee may be used. 

Coffee Eggnog. i egg, i}i teaspoons of sugar, one-half scant 
cup of milk or cream, one-half scant cup of coffee. 

Egg Malted Milk. Mix i tablespoonful of Horlick's Malted 
Milk with 1 tablespoonful of crushed fruit and i egg; beat for 
five minutes. Strain and add 20 drops of acid phosphate, 1 
tablespoonful of crushed ice, and three-quarters cup of ice water. 
A grating of nutmeg may be used for flavor. 

Grape Yolk. Separate the white and the yolk of an egg, beat 
the yolk, add the sugar, and let the yolk and sugar stand while the 
white of the egg is thoroughly whipped. Add 2 tablespoonfuls 
of grape juice to the yolk and pour this on to the beaten white, 
blending carefully. Have all ingredients chilled before blending 
and serve cold. 

Albuminized Milk. Beat one-half cup of milk and the white of 

1 egg with a few grains of salt. Put into a fruit jar, shake thor- 
oughly until blended. Strain into a glass and serve cold. 

White Wine Whey. To half a pint of milk boiling add 1 wine- 
glassful of sherry. Strain through a cheesecloth. Sweeten with 
powdered sugar to taste. For a child give a tablespoonful every 

2 or 3 hours. 

Albumin Water. Albumin water is used chiefly for infants in 
cases of acute stomach and intestinal disorders, in which some 
nutritious and easily assimilated food is needed. The white of 
1 egg is beaten and mixed with a pint of water, which has been 
boiled and cooled. 

Albuminized Grape Juice. Put 2 tablespoonfuls of grape juice 
into a dainty glass with pure chopped ice. Beat the white of 1 egg, 
turn into the glass, sprinkle a little sugarover the top, and serve. 



310 What to Eat and When 

Cream of Tartar Water. Dissolve a teaspoonful or a tea- 
spoonful and a half of cream of tartar in a pint of boiling water, 
flavor with lemon peel and sugar. Strain and drink when cold. 

Farinaceous Beverages. These are all made by 
slowly cooking cereals, such as barley, rice, oatmeal, 
etc., in a large quantity of boiling water from two to 
three hours, straining off the liquid, and seasoning to 
taste. They are particularly valuable when only a 
small amount of nutriment can be assimilated. Since 
the chief ingredient is starch, long cooking is necessary 
to make soluble the starch globules, so that it can be 
more readily digested. Since these drinks are given 
only in case of weak digestion, it is important that 
they be taken slowly and held in the mouth until they 
are thoroughly mixed with the saliva. 

Barley Water (Infant feeding). Mix I teaspoonful of barley 
flour with 2 tablespoonfuls of cold water, until it is a smooth paste. 
Put in the top of a double boiler and add gradually I pint of 
boiling water. Boil over direct heat five minutes, stirring con- 
stantly; then put into a double boiler, over boiling water, and cook 
fifteen minutes longer. This is used as a milk diluent for normal 
infants and to check diarrhea. 

For children or adults use one-half teaspoonful of barley or 
rice flour, I cup of boiling water, and one-quarter teaspoonful of 
salt. Cream or milk and salt may be added for adults, or, lemon 
juice and sugar, according to the condition. 

Barley water is an astringent and used to check the bowels 
when they are too loose. 

Barley Water (Bartholow). Wash 2 ounces of pearl barley with 
cold water. Then boil it for five minutes in some fresh water and 
throw both waters away. Then pour on 2 quarts of boiling water 
and boil it down to a quart. Stir and skim occasionally. Flavor 
with lemon rind. Add sugar to taste but do not strain unless 
the patient requests it. 

Rice Water or Mucilage of Rice. Thoroughly wash 1 ounce of 
rice with cold water. Then soak for three hours in a quart of 



Recipes for Foods for Invalids 311 

water kept at a tepid heat, stirring from time to time, and after- 
wards boil slowly for an hour and strain. This is useful in dysen- 
tery, diarrhea, and irritable states of the alimentary canal. It 
may be sweetened and flavored in the same way as barley water. 

Flaxseed Tea. One-half cupful of flaxseed to I quart of boiling 
water. Boil thirty minutes and let stand near the fire to thicken. 
Strain, add lemon juice and sugar to taste. 

Rice Water. Wash 2 tablespoonfuls of rice, add 3 cups of cold 
water, and soak thirty minutes. Then heat gradually and cook 
one hour until the rice is tender. Strain through muslin, reheat, 
and dilute with boiling water or hot milk to the consistency 
desired. Season with salt ; sugar may be added if desired and cin- 
namon, if allowed, may be cooked with it as a flavor. One tea- 
spoonful of stoned raisins may be added to the rice, before boiling, 
if there is no bowel trouble. 

Oatmeal Water. Mix 1 tablespoonful of oatmeal with 1 table- 
spoonful of cold water. Add a speck of salt and stir into it a 
quart of boiling water. Boil for three hours, replenishing the 
water as it boils away. Strain though a fine sieve or cheese- 
cloth, season, and serve cold. Sufficient water should be added 
to keep the drink almost as thin as water. 

Toast Water. Toast thin slices of stale bread in the oven; 
break up into crumbs; add 1 cup of boiling water and let it stand 
for an hour. Rub through a fine strainer, season with a little 
salt. Milk, or cream and sugar may be added if desirable. This 
is valuable in cases of fever or extreme nausea. 

Sago Soup. Stew 2 ounces of the best sago in a pint of water 
until it is quite tender. Mix with half a pint of good boiling 
cream and the yolks of two fresh eggs. Put into it 1 quart of 
essence of beef. Mix thoroughly. The beef essence must be 
heated separately and mixed while both mixtures are hot. This 
must be served warm. 

Crust Coffee. Dry crusts of brown bread in the oven until they 
are hard and crisp. Pound or roll them and pour boiling water 
over. Let soak for fifteen minutes, then strain carefully through 
a fine sieve. 

MEAT JUICES 

Meat juice may be prepared in three ways: 

(1) Broil quickly, or even scorch, a small piece of 



312 What to Eat and When 

beef. Squeeze out the juice with a lemon squeezer, 
previously dipped in boiling water. Catch the juice 
in a hot cup. Season and serve. If desirable to heat 
it further, place the cup in hot water. 

(2) Broil quickly, cut up and put the small pieces 
into a glass jar. Set the covered jar in a pan of cold 
water. Heat gradually for an hour, never allowing 
the water to come to a boil. Strain and press out the 
clear, red juice, season, and serve. One pound of beef 
yields 8 tablespoonfuls of juice/ 

(3) Grind raw beef and place in a lightly covered 
jar with 1 gill of cold water to a pound of beef. 
Stand it on ice overnight and squeeze through a bag. 
Strain, season, and serve. 

Meat Tea. Meat tea is made by using a pound of meat to a 
pint of water. Grind the meat, place in a jar, and cover with the 
cold water. Set the jar in an open kettle of water and cook for 
two hours or more, not allowing the water to boil. Strain by 
squeezing through a bag, skim off the fat, and season. 

Meat Broth. Meat broth is made from meat and bone, with or 
without vegetables. The proportion is a quart of water to a 
pound of meat. Cut the meat into small pieces, add the cold 
water, and simmer until the quantity is reduced one-half. Strain, 
skim, and season with salt. Chicken, veal, mutton, and beef may 
be used in this way. It may be seasoned with onions, celery, 
bay-leaves, cloves, carrots, parsnips, rice, barley, or tapioca. 
Stale bread crumbs may be added. 

Mutton and Chicken Broth. Cut up a chicken or a pound of 
mutton, because it is free from fat, put into cold water to cover, 
and let stand on ice two or three hours. Cook over a slow fire 
until the meat falls from the bone. Strain, cool, skim off the 
fat, salt to taste, and allow to cool. This may be served hot or 
cold. 

Broth for the Sick. To 1 pound of chopped lean meat of any 
kind, except pork or veal, add 1 pint of cold water or one pint 
and a half on ice. Let stand in a covered glass fruit jar for from 
four to six hours, cook for three hours in a closed jar placed in a 



Recipes for Foods for Invalids 313 

kettle of water, strain, cool, skim off the fat, clear with a beaten 
egg, season to taste. This may be given warm or cold. 

Beef Tea and Oatmeal. Two tablespoonfuls of oatmeal and 2 
of cold water, mix thoroughly. Add a pint of good beef tea which 
has been brought to the boiling point. Boil together for five 
minutes. The oatmeal must have been previously cooked for a 
long time. It may be taken from that prepared for the morning 
meal. 

Soups. Clear soups are made by cooking raw meat or vege- 
tables, or both together, slowly, for a long time, then straining 
the liquid. The flavor may be changed by browning the meat 
or vegetables in butter before adding the water. 

Cream soups are made in the proportion of i quart of vege- 
tables (such as corn, peas, beans, tomatoes, celery, or asparagus) 
to i pint of water and adding i pint of milk. Cook the vege- 
tables thoroughly in water and mash through a colander. To this 
water and pulp add a cream sauce made in the proportion of 4 
tablespoonfuls of flour, 4 tablespoonfuls of butter, and 1 pint of 
milk, for vegetables poor in starch or protein. Add 2 tablespoon- 
fuls of flour, 2 tablespoonfuls of butter, and a pint of milk for 
those rich in protein. Season to taste. 

Tomato acid should be counteracted by the addition of one- 
eighth tablespoonful of soda before the milk is added. 

Potato soup may be flavored with onion or celery, or both. 

SEMI-SOLID FOODS 

The following lists of foods are given for ready 
reference: 1 

Jellies. 

(a) Meat jellies and gelatin; veal, beef, chicken, mutton. 

(b) Starch jellies, flavored with fruit; cornstarch, arrowroot, 

sago, tapioca. 

(c) Fruit jellies and gelatin. 

1 Nutrition and Dietetics, by Dr. W. S. Hall, D. Appleton & Co., 
New York. 



314 What to Eat and When 

Custards. 

(a) Junkets of milk, or milk and egg (rennet curdled), 

flavored with nutmeg, etc. 

(b) Egg, milk custard, boiled or baked. 

(c) Cornstarch, tapioca, boiled custard. 

(d) Frozen custard (New York ice cream.) 

Gruels. (Farinaceous.) 

(a) Milk gruels. 

(b) Water gruels. 

Jellies. — Meat Jellies are made in two ways: 

(1) Cook soup meat (containing gristle and bone) slowly 
for a long time in just enough water to cover. Strain and set the 
liquid away in a mold to cool and set. If desired, bits of shredded 
meat may be added to the liquid before molding. 

(2) Use meat broth and gelatin in the proportion of 1 table- 
spoon gelatin to three-quarters of a cup of hot broth. Pour 
into mold and set on ice. 

Starch Jellies. Starch jellies are made by cooking in a pint of 
fruit juice or water until clear, 2 tablespoonfuls of tapioca, arrow- 
root, sago, cornstarch, or flour. Sweeten to taste. 

If water is used, fresh fruit may be used either in the jelly or 
in a sauce poured over the jelly. 

Fruit Jellies. These are made: 

(1) Of fruit juice and sugar in equal quantities, cooked until 
it will set when cooled; 

(2) Of fruit juice and gelatin in the proportion of 1 table- 
spoon of gelatin to three-fourths of a cup of fruit juice, or one- 
half box gelatin to 1^ pints of juice. Sugar to taste. Made 
tea or coffee, or cocoa or lemonade may be used in the same 
proportion. 

Custards. These are made with (1) milk, (2) milk 
and eggs, (3) milk, egg, and some farinaceous sub- 
stances as rice, cornstarch, tapioca. In the first the 
coagulum is produced by the addition of rennet, in the 
other two by the application of heat. 

Plain Junket. Dissolve in a cup of lukewarm milk (never 
warmer), a tablespoon of sugar or caramel syrup. Add a 



Recipes for Foods for Invalids 315 

quarter of a junket tablet, previously dissolved in a tablespoon 
of cold water. Stir a few times, add vanilla, nuts, or nutmeg if 
desired. Pour into a cup and set aside to cool and solidify. 
This may be served plain or with whipped cream, or boiled 
custard. 

Egg-Milk Custard. When eggs are used for thickening, not 
less than four eggs should be used to a quart of milk (more eggs 
make it richer). 

Snowballs. Heat I pint of milk with sugar to taste. Beat the 
whites of 3 eggs stiff, then beat in I }4 tablespoonf uls of powdered 
sugar. Drop by spoonfuls into the hot milk, turn in three min- 
utes, and take out. Beat yolks of the eggs, pour the hot milk 
over them, and allow to thicken. Do not boil. Arrange snow- 
balls in dish and pour custard over. Serve cool. 

Boiled Custard. One pint of milk, 2 eggs, one-half cup of 
sugar, one-half saltspoon of salt. Scald the milk, add the salt 
and sugar, and stir until dissolved. Beat the eggs very thick and 
smooth. Pour the boiling milk on the eggs slowly, stirring all the 
time. Pour the mixture into a double boiler, set over the fire, 
and stir for ten minutes. Add flavoring. As soon as a thickening 
of the mixture is noticed remove from the fire, pour into a dish, and 
set away to cool. This custard makes cup custard, the sauce for 
such puddings as snow pudding, and when decorated with spoon- 
fuls of beaten egg-white, makes floating island. 

Baked Custard. Proceed as in boiled custard, but instead of 
pouring into a double boiler pour into a baking dish. Set the 
dish in a pan of water, place in the oven, and bake until the mix- 
ture is set in the middle. 

Farinaceous Custards. Make like boiled custard, using one 
less egg and adding one-quarter cup of farina, tapioca, cornstarch, 
arrowroot, or cooked rice to the hot milk and egg. 

Sago should be soaked overnight before using. 

Tapioca should be soaked one hour before using. 

Coffee Custard. Scald one tablespoon of ground coffee in milk 
and strain before proceeding as for boiled custard. 

Chocolate Custard. Add one square of grated chocolate to the 
milk. 

Caramel Custard. Melt the dry sugar until golden brown, add 
the hot milk, and when dissolved proceed as before. Bake. 

Milk for Puddings or Stewed Fruit (Ringer). Boil a small piece 
of lemon rind and 2 cloves in a pint of milk. Mix half a teaspoon- 



316 What to Eat and When 

full of arrowroot in a little cold milk and add it to the boiled milk. 
Stir until about the consistency of cream. Beat up the yolks 
°f 3 e gg s m a little milk. Beat into the hot milk taken off the 
fire and as it cools add the eggs and a tablespoonful of orange 
flower water, stirring it constantly until quite cool. Keep in a 
very cool place until required for use. 

Bread Jelly. Pour boiling water on stale bread and allow it 
to soak until soft. Pour off the water, add fresh water to cover, 
and boil until stiff and until it becomes jelly-like when it cools. 
It may be eaten with milk or cream. 

SOLID FOODS 
(Suitable for Invalids) 

Toasts. 

(a) Cream toast. 

(b) Milk toast. 

(c) Water toast. 

Creams. 

(a) Plain. 

(b) Whipped. 

(c) Ice cream. 

Oils. 

(a) Plain olive, cotton seed, or nut. 

(b) Butter. 

(c) Emulsion, as mayonnaise. 

(d) Cod-liver oil, plain or emulsified. 

Cereals. 

(a) Porridges and mushes — Oatmeal, corn meal, wheat, rice, 

etc. 

(b) Dry preparations — Shredded wheat biscuit, corn flakes, 

puffed rice, puffed wheat, triscuit. 

Breads. 

(a) Plain — White, Graham, nutri-meal, whole wheat, brown, 

rye, etc. 

(b) Toasts — Dry, buttered, zwieback. 

(c) Crackers — Soda, Graham, oatmeal, Boston butter, milk. 

(d) Biscuits — Yeast biscuits (twenty-four hours old), baking- 

powder biscuit, beaten biscuit. 



Recipes for Foods for Invalids 317 

Egg Preparations. 

(a) Boiled, poached, scrambled, baked. 

(b) Omelets. 

(c) Souffles of meat and of potatoes. 

Meats. 

(a) Beef or mutton — Broiled or roasted. 

(b) Chicken, turkey, or game — Broiled or roasted. 

(c) Fish — Broiled, boiled, or baked. 

(d) Oysters — Canned, stewed, etc. 

(e) Clams — Chowder, broiled, or baked. 

Vegetables. 

(a) Potatoes — Baked, boiled, creamed, or escalloped. 

(b) Sweet potatoes, baked or boiled. 

(d) Lima beans, plain or creamed; string beans, plain or 
creamed; cauliflower, plain or creamed; carrots; 
parsnips. 

(c) Green peas, plain or creamed. 

(d) Lima beans, plain or creamed; string beans, plain or 

creamed; cauliflower, plain or creamed; carrots; 
parsnips. 

Fruits. 

(a) Fresh — Oranges, grapes, melons, etc. 

(b) Stewed — Apples, plums, apricots, pears, berries, etc. 

(c) Baked — Apples, bananas, pears. 

(d) Canned — Peaches, apricots, plums, pears, etc. 

(e) Preserved — Peaches, plums, quinces, etc. 

Gruels. Gruels are a mixture of grain or flour 
with either milk or water. They require long cooking 
and may be flavored with sugar, nutmeg, cinnamon, 
or almond. 

Take the meal or flour (oatmeal, 2 tablespoons, or corn meal, 
I tablespoon, or arrowroot, i}4 tablespoons). Sift it slowly into 
1 yi cups boiling water, simmer for an hour or two. Strain off the 
liquid; add to it 1 teaspoon of sugar, season with salt, and add 1 
cup of warm milk. 

Water Gruel. If water gruel is desired, let the last cup of liquid 
added be water instead of milk. 



318 What to Eat and When 

Cream Gruel. A cream gruel may be made by using rich cream 
instead of milk or water. 

Barley Gruel. Barley gruel (usually a water gruel) is prepared 
as follows: Moisten 4 tablespoons of barley flour in a little cold 
water and add it slowly to the boiling water. Stir and boil for 
twenty minutes. 

Toasts. — Cream Toast. Toast the bread slowly until brown on 
both sides. Butter and pour over each slice enough warm cream 
to moisten (the cream may be thickened slightly and the butter 
may be omitted). 

Milk Toast. One tablespoon of cornstarch or flour; one cup of 
milk, salt to taste, and boil. Butter the toast and pour over it 
the above white sauce. 

Water Toast. Pour over plain or buttered toast enough boiling 
water to thoroughly moisten it. 

Souffles of Fruit, etc. The distinguished feature of 
a souffle is a pastry or pulpy foundation mixture, and 
the addition of stiffly beaten egg-white. A souffle may 
or may not be baked. 

Plain Souffle. Two tablespoons flour; 1 cup of liquid (water, 
milk, or fruit juice) ; 3 or 4 eggs; sugar to suit the fruit. If thick 
fruit pulp is used, omit the thickening. Beat the egg-yolks until 
thick. Add sugar gradually and continue beating. Add the 
fruit (if lemon juice add some rind also). Fold in the well-beaten 
whites. Bake in a buttered dish (set in a pan of hot water) for 
thirty-five or forty minutes in a slow oven. 

Fresh Fruit Souffle. Reduce the fruit to a pulp. Strawberries, 
peaches, prunes, apples, bananas, etc., may be used. Sweeten 
the pulp. Beat the egg-white to a stiff froth, add the fruit 
pulp slowly. Chill and serve with whipped cream or soft 
custard. 

Chocolate Souffle. Two tablespoons flour ; 2 tablespoons butter ; 
three-quarters cup of milk; one-third cup of sugar; 2 tablespoons 
hot water. Melt the butter, add the flour, and stir well. Pour 
the milk in gradually and cook until well boiled. Add the melted 
chocolate, to which the sugar and hot water have been added. 



Recipes for Foods for Invalids 319 

Beat in the yolks and fold in the whites of the eggs. Bake 
twenty-five minutes. 

Farina Souffle. Cook the farina (4 tablespoons) in a pint of 
boiling water. Stir this with the egg-yolks, add sugar or salt, 
and later fold in the egg-whites, flavor, and set away to cool. 



CHAPTER XII 

INFANT FEEDING 

ONE of the fundamental problems of to-day, as it 
was of yesterday and will be of to-morrow, is 
the correct feeding of infants and children. 

Every civilized country faces the same problem, 
largely because the artificial feeding of infants has 
become so prevalent. 

Unfortunately, many women who must labor out- 
side of the home must resort partially, if not entirely, 
to artificial feeding of their infants. Usually on ac- 
count of the inconvenience of breast feeding and the 
strain on the mother, the infant is given artificial 
food, often improperly prepared. Although infant 
mortality is high among the poorer classes, it is mar- 
velous that so many of these infants survive. 

It is an encouraging fact, however, that women 
among the well-to-do and educated classes are appre- 
ciating the importance of breast feeding and that the 
number of these who are not only willing but anxious 
to nurse their infants is increasing. 

The mother should be firm in her decision to nurse 
her child and be encouraged to persevere in efforts to 
secure the proper development of the breasts before 
the birth of the child, that the quantity as well as the 
quality of the milk may be adequate. 

320 



Infant Feeding 321 

The fact that nearly one-fourth of the civilized race 
dies during the first year of life is astounding. This 
mortality is due directly or indirectly to nutritional 
disturbances that could in a great measure be pre- 
vented if the babies were properly nursed at the breast 
or if the artificial feeding was carefully regulated. 

Of six hundred and forty-one infants under obser- 
vation by Dublin, in Fall River, Mass., five hundred 
and sixty-five were breast-fed and seventy-six bottle- 
fed. After the first week there were one hundred and 
six deaths. In seventy-four of these the infants were 
breast-fed, and in thirty-two, bottled-fed; nearly one- 
half of the bottle-fed babies died and only 10 per cent, 
of the breast-fed babies. The breast-fed child, there- 
fore, has five chances to live where the bottle-fed child 
has one. 

One fundamental principle on which all of the lead- 
ing specialists in the study of the baby agree, is that 
the milk of the healthy mother is the only ideal baby 
food. Every mother should be made to realize the 
importance of nursing her baby for at least nine or 
ten months, unless circumstances beyond control make 
it impossible or inadvisable. 

Proper care of the breasts and of the general health 
during the expectant period will usually secure a 
sufficient flow of milk for the child's needs. 

The mental attitude of the mother has much to do 
with the secretion of milk; therefore she should cul- 
tivate the habit of kindly, cheerful, healthful thoughts. 
She should keep her circulation and vitality up to par. 

She should take regular exercise and be out in the 
fresh air daily. 

During the first two or three days the child receives 
little nourishment from the breast, simply a few 



322 What to Eat and When 

ounces daily of a yellowish substance known as colos- 
trum, which is supposed to have a laxative effect on 
its bowels. 

It is, however, usual to put the child to the breast 
at regular intervals of about four hours after the first 
day, to stimulate the milk secretion, which should be 
quite free on the third day ; it, however, may be slow 
in coming for a day to two longer. 

A teaspoonful or two of warm boiled water, or of a 
five per cent, solution of milk-sugar may be given 
every few hours, in fact it is considered advisable by 
some physicians, in order to lessen somewhat the loss 
in weight which takes place during the first week. 

If the free flow of milk is delayed beyond forty-eight 
hours, some nourishment must be given. A little 
modified cow's milk is best. The preparation of this 
will be taken up under Artificial Feeding. 

The mother should not permit herself to become 
easily discouraged about her ability to nurse her 
child, for even though the supply at first seems very 
deficient and it is necessary to give the baby other 
nourishment, it should be put to the breast at regular 
intervals, as the sucking by the child stimulates the 
secretion of milk. The flow of milk often increases 
when the mother becomes more active. 

When the milk flows freely, the contents of one 
breast is sufficient for one nursing, and the breasts 
should be used alternately, that is one breast at one 
feeding and the other at the next. 

Nursing should not last longer than from ten to 
twenty minutes. Too rapid nursing is apt to cause 
vomiting. If it is necessary to check the flow of milk 
somewhat, it can be done by pressing the breast 
slightly between the fingers. 



Infant Feeding 323 

There is a warmth, a purity, and a vitality to the 
mother's milk that is impossible to secure in any arti- 
ficial food no matter how carefully and skilfully pre- 
pared. It is also germ-free. 

Some women seem unable to nurse their babies for 
more than two or three months and it is sometimes 
thought that it is not worth while for a woman to nurse 
her baby unless she can do so for a considerable time. 
This, however, is a great mistake, because there is no 
time in the baby's life when it is more important for it 
to have breast milk than in the beginning. This is 
the time when the baby's digestion is most easily dis- 
turbed and most difficult to correct. Every day or 
week that a baby gets breast milk gives it a better 
start. 

It has been thought that it is dangerous to use both 
breast and artificial feeding. This idea is erroneous. 
The artificial food cannot make the breast milk hard 
to digest, while the breast feeding seems to make the 
artificial food digest more readily. This may be due 
in part to the ferments which the breast milk contains, 
but more probably is due to the fact that the baby is 
able to utilize the proteins of human milk to build 
tissue when it cannot so readily utilize the proteins of 
the artificial food. 

Wet nursing is resorted to less frequently 
now than in the past on account of better « . e 
methods for artificial feeding. 

If the mother is unable to nurse the child herself 
and the conditions are ideal, that is the wet nurse a 
healthy, happy woman with a thriving baby of her 
own, and very particular in the care of her person, this 
is better than artificial feeding. 



324 What to Eat and When 

Total absence of milk, after earnest 
Contra- efforts to stimulate its secretion necessi- 
Indications , , *-.e • i r -j- 

. «. . tates artificial feeding. 
to Nursing & 

If the mother has chorea, epilepsy, or 
tuberculosis in any form, it is best to resort to artificial 
feeding ; also if the mother has syphilis and the baby 
is free from it. In these conditions the child must 
often be taken from the mother to avoid infection. 

If the mother has had serious complications in preg- 
nancy or parturition, the physician must decide on the 
advisability of natural or artificial feeding. 

In case of nephritis, except perhaps in a very mild 
form, the milk is toxic and therefore nursing from the 
breast should be prohibited. 

Sometimes in acute contagious disease it is safer to 
nurse the baby than to subject it to the dangers of 
artificial food. However, when the mother's temper- 
ature exceeds ioi or 102 degrees, the milk will prob- 
ably possess toxic qualities and disagree with the 
infant. 

Every nursing mother should acquaint 

dPh herself with the process of the infant's 
ology of the digestion, as many of the infantile difficul- 
Infant ties are caused by overfeeding or under- 

feeding, due to ignorance on this subject. 

The alimentary tract of the new-born infant 
differs in many ways from that of the adult. 

As compared with other mammals, the human infant 
is the most helpless and undeveloped and therefore 
the most delicate and easily affected. It is practically 
dependent on its mother for nourishment which will 
completely supply its needs. 

The capacity of the stomach, after careful study, 



Infant Feeding 325 

has been placed at from 1 to 2 ounces at birth, 2 to 
3 ounces at the end of the first month, 6 ounces at the 
6th month, and from 9 to 10 ounces at the end of the 
first year. This is simply an average guide, as stom- 
achs vary somewhat in size. Quantities somewhat 
larger than the foregoing are sometimes fed, but some 
of the food has passed beyond the pylorus before the 
last of it is taken. Digestion begins as soon as the 
food enters the stomach. 

The secretion of bile begins within 12 hours after 
birth, increases rapidly, and is fully established within 
a week or ten days. 

The pancreatic ferments which digest starches and 
sugar are present in the new-born, although scanty; 
the sucking movements of the child when nursing 
exercise the salivary glands so that saliva is secreted; 
but starch digestion is not completed in the mouth, 
hence starch and a greater proportion of sugar than is 
in the mother's milk are difficult for the infant to digest. 

The intestines, when compared with the length of 
the body, are relatively long in infants, but the muscu- 
lar coat is comparatively weak; digestion is therefore 
relatively slow and more subject to derangement by 
substances that influence peristalsis. 

The fact that infants vomit with comparatively 
little effort, the food overflowing from an overloaded 
stomach, is due to the relatively feeble closure of the 
cardiac orifice. 

The stomach contents are kept germ-free by the 
secretion of hydrochloric acid and the upper intestine 
is nearly free from bacteria in breast-fed infants, 
because of the antibacterial nature of the intestinal 
secretion. In some digestive disturbances this safe- 
guard fails and bacteria develop rapidly. 



326 What to Eat and When 

Intestinal disturbance in the breast-fed 
Intestinal i n f a nt is most often caused by overfeeding, 
the infant often nursing too frequently, 
thereby emptying the breasts and securing 
a high fat ratio. Frequent nursing does not give the 
stomach time to empty and thus digestive disturbances 
are apt to occur. Therefore, as a means of reliev- 
ing intestinal trouble in the infant, nursing at regu- 
lar intervals and not too frequently, is of much 
importance. 

When digestive disturbance has occurred it is 
best to stop nursing for twenty-four hours, giving the 
infant weak barley gruel sweetened with saccharin. 
At the end of twenty-four hours let the infant nurse 
at the breast for from three to five minutes, this being 
preceded by a small drink of water. 

As the bowel condition improves, the time at the 
breast may be gradually lengthened. 

The mother should watch her diet to avoid too 
much rich food, and foods that seem difficult to digest, 
as certain articles of food in the mother's diet often 
causes gastric disturbances in the infant. 

She should also carefully watch her thoughts, keep- 
ing them well poised and upon kindness, love, and 
peace. Worry or unkind thoughts will affect the 
mother's milk and disturb the child's digestion very 
quickly. 

Fits of temper in the child also disturb its digestion. 



Regular nursing habits should be in- 
F „ sisted on, as indigestion, colic, and diarrhea 

often result from irregular nursing. 
Some authorities discourage night feeding as un- 
necessary with a normal baby, but most physicians 



Infant Feeding 



327 



agree that the child should be aroused during the day 
in order not to miss a feeding, as it will fall asleep again 
directly after nursing and will soon get into the habit 
of awakening at feeding time. 

The following table from Holt may be used as a 
guide in breast-feeding: 



Age 


Number in 

twenty-four 

hours 


Intervals 

during the day 

hours 


Night nursing 

between 9 p.m. 

and 7 a.m. 


1st day 


4 

.- 6 

10 

8 

7 
6 


6 

4 

2 

3 
3 


I 


2d day 


I 


3d to 28th day 

4th to 13th week.. . . 
3d to 5th month .... 
5th to 1 2th month. . 


2 

I 
I 




There may be some slight deviations from this if 
the child is ill and small for its age. It is a good gen- 
eral rule to feed the child according to the age with 
which its weight corresponds. 

There can be no regular rule followed for all. Some 
authorities hold that fifteen- to twenty-minute feedings 
at four-hour intervals during the day, with one feeding 
at night, are sufficient, but it depends on the child. 
Some babies' stomachs are smaller than others, and 
some do not nurse regularly, but play and are inat- 
tentive to the nursing. In either event the child will 
not get sufficient nourishment at four-hour intervals. 
The intelligent mother can determine what is best. 



Water 



In breast-feeding, as well as in most of 
the formulae for bottle-feeding, there is an 
allowance for an amount of fluid that, under ordi- 
nary circumstances, satisfies the baby's requirements. 



328 What to Eat and When 

Additional water is often necessary, especially during 
the hot weather when the body heat is regulated 
through evaporation from the skin. The most effect- 
ive means of promoting perspiration is the giving of 
water. This, however, should not be done to excess. 
Eight ounces for a io-pound baby, given in divided 
doses during the day, will be sufficient. 

It is best to give the water when the stomach is 
nearly or quite empty. It should be boiled and cooled 
and should be given by the bottle as the child will then 
take at intervals all that its thirst requires, and the 
danger of choking as a result of too hasty swallowing 
is avoided. 

The growth and general condition of the 
Normal child will, of course, be influenced by the 
mentinthe q uant y anc ^ quantity of the milk. The 
Breast-Fed birth weight of 7 to 7^ pounds is usually 
doubled by the end of the fifth month and 
trebled by the end of the year. The average gain is 
from 5 to 8 ounces a week during the first few months 
and from 2 to 4 ounces a week the last few months of 
the year. 

If the mother's milk is deficient in any way, the 
child becomes fretful and loses weight, or the weight 
remains stationary. In such cases the physician 
usually examines the milk to determine its quality 
and advises some means of improving it, or in some 
way adding to the baby's food the element in which 
the mother's milk is lacking. 

The physical condition of the mother often affects 
the baby's nourishment, and besides resorting, tempor- 
arily, to means for improving the quality of the milk, 
she should build up her general vitality through regu- 



Infant Feeding 329 

lar exercise for the spine and the vital organs, deep 
breathing of fresh air, and regular rest. 

While a scanty food supply will diminish the flow of 
milk, overloading the stomach at meal time and taking 
quantities of rich food between meals, as so many 
nursing mothers, think is necessary, usually does little 
to increase the quantity or improve the quality of the 
milk, but often results in an accumulation of super- 
fluous flesh and disturbed digestion, which quickly 
affects the child. 

Sometimes a more restricted diet together with 
specially directed exercises to relieve any digestive 
disturbance and correct constipation, and relaxing 
exercises for the nerves, will do more than anything 
else to improve the quality of the milk. 

Mothers should particularly avoid becoming over- 
tired. 

When the milk is good, but the quantity deficient, 
massage of the breasts three or four times a day for 
five or ten minutes will increase the supply. One 
effective means of increasing the secretion of the mam- 
mary glands is the mechanical stimulus of suction. 
If a robust baby can be put to the breast for a time 
it may develop an ample flow of milk for a puny in- 
fant whose powers of suction are feeble. 

A good malt extract with meals sometimes tends to 
increase the flow of milk. When the quality and 
quantity of the milk are deficient, the physician usually 
advises a very nourishing diet and a tonic. This 
nourishment does not of necessity require an excessive 
amount of liquid. 

When the quantity is sufficient, but the quality 
poor, it is usually necessary to wean the baby, if it is 
several months old, although mother's milk, even if 



330 What to Eat and When 

below standard in quality, is better for the infant than 
cow's milk, at least during the first few months. 

Nervousness, sleeplessness, worry, and grief have a 
decided effect on the milk supply and on the baby. 
Nervous mothers are apt to have an abundance of milk 
one day and little the next day ; frequently the milk 
will disappear suddenly. 

. When it is possible, the baby should be 

weaned gradually. Although there is no 
set time for weaning, it is not advisable to feed the 
child exclusively from the breast after the eighth or 
tenth month. Bunge holds that human milk con- 
tains too little iron at this period and the babies are apt 
to become pale and undernourished. 

When additional feeding is decided on, the physician 
should prescribe the preparation. A bottle a day 
should be substituted for the breast feeding at first 
and, gradually, additional bottle feedings, until, 
after about a month the breast is entirely with- 
drawn. 

After the eighth month and until the age of twelve 
months, as a general rule, cow's milk should be diluted 
and sweetened by mixing eight ounces of barley water 
and thirty-two ounces of milk, adding an ounce of 
cane-sugar or milk-sugar, and dividing the whole into 
five 8-ounce portions. 

Additional food may be given to the healthy child 
after the eighth or ninth month. Orange juice or 
other fruit juice one or twice a day should be given 
about an hour before feeding. A teaspoonful may 
be given at first and the amount gradually increased 
to about two tablespoonfuls a day. 

Orange juice is a specific in conditions of scurvy 



Infant Feeding 331 

resulting from improper feeding. The child usually 
improves rapidly after it begins to take the juice. 

Beef juice, meat broths, or strained vegetable soup 
may be given in increasing amounts up to 5 or 6 
ounces daily. 

Zwieback and whole wheat or Graham crackers are 
permissible in small amounts after the ninth month. 
After nine months the healthy baby should also have 
a soft-boiled egg occasionally, also baked apple and 
well-cooked, mashed spinach or carrots. 

Food should be given only at regular intervals and 
nothing but water between feedings. 

Starch-digesting ferments are present at birth in 
sufficient amounts to digest the sugar in milk, but 
they do not develop sufficiently to digest starches 
until about the twelfth month, so white bread, crackers 
made from white flour, potatoes, rice, etc., should not 
be given the child under a year. 

When artificial feeding is necessary, 
the physician must decide what modifica- Artificial 
tion is best for the baby. One can only de- 
termine by experimenting upon the actual percentages 
of fat, proteins, . and sugar which each baby needs, 
following, in general, the proportions contained in 
mother's milk, because while many babies thrive on a 
food of this composition, some do not. The formulas 
given are simply a guide, as the proportions may need 
to be changed, or may need to be made weaker in 
some cases and stronger in others. 

The composition of human milk, however, is a guide 
to the infant's digestive ability. This must be deter- 
mined by a careful study of the individual baby as 
every baby is a problem by itself. 



332 What to Eat and When 

As previously mentioned, no artificial food is the 
same as human milk, although it may contain the same 
proportions of the different elements, and it is often 
difficult, especially during the first few months, to 
prepare a combination on which the child will thrive. 

Cow's milk, properly prepared, is the nearest avail- 
able substitute for human milk. It must be modified, 
as the digestion of the calf at birth is equal to that of 
an infant at eight or nine months. 

Farmers have in recent years become more particu- 
lar about the care of their cows and cleanliness in 
milking because the educational campaign with regard 
to the danger to human life from tuberculous animals 
has caused a greater public demand for good, clean 
milk. 

Many infectious diseases are conveyed by milk, and 
impure milk is a large cause of the extraordinarily 
high mortality of early infancy. With the improve- 
ment of the milk supply, the decline in the infant 
death-rate has been wondrously gratifying. 

Manufacturers have taken advantage of the fact 
that the public has become a little afraid of cow's 
milk and have extensively advertised their prepared 
foods, claiming them to be the best substitute for 
mother's milk. However, experiments have proven 
that these statements for the most part are misleading, 
the composition of the foods not being suited to the 
actual requirements of the infant. Some prominent 
physicians think that infant mortality has been in- 
creasing since prepared foods have been used so 
extensively. 

One leading authority states that ' ' clean, fresh cow's 
milk, properly modified, is the best substitute avail- 
able. It is to be preferred to any prepared food, no 



Infant Feeding 333 

matter how sweeping may be the manufacturers' 
claim for it." 

The most striking thing about the prepared foods 
is their tremendous excess of carbohydrates, either 
cane-sugar or sugar derived from starch by the process 
of malting. Condensed milk, in particular, contains 
much too large a percentage of cane-sugar for the child. 

Another authority states: 

An excess of sugar is likely to damage the organism by the pro- 
duction of poisonous substances in the body. This is particularly 
true in those infants who are already suffering from indigestion. 
An excess of sugar in such a baby is likely to render him severely 
and dangerously sick and result in catastrophe. 

The study of the bacteriology of the 
alimentary tract of the new-born infant e ° 
reveals a most interesting fact and explains why arti- 
ficial feeding is often so difficult and dangerous. 

In the intestinal canal at all times many varieties 
of vegetable organisms (bacteria) are present. These 
are called floral organisms. Some of these aid diges- 
tion while some others increase disturbance in the 
intestines, particularly if in excess, or if digestive 
derangements occur. 

The flora which predominate are those peculiar to 
the infant which is properly digesting human milk. 
This accounts for the uniform action of the bowels 
in breast-fed infants. As soon as the child gets 
milk from the breast, the intestinal flora assume this 
definite form. 

When cow's milk or any other food is given, the 
intestinal flora change. When the change is made too 
suddenly, these new flora which live on the digested 
products of human milk gradually disappear and the 



334 What to Eat and When 

action of the new flora often causes intestinal derange- 
ments which the infant is not strong enough to over- 
come. 

If artificial feeding must be resorted to, 
Composition the composition should resemble mother's 
M .„ milk as nearly as possible. It is impossible 

to duplicate it exactly and even though the 
elements and the proportion of them are the same, 
the bacterial flora will be different and consequently 
the effect also. 

If the breasts are emptied regularly, human milk 
varies little in composition after the first few weeks. 
According to Holt there is an average in mother's 
milk of 

Fat 4% 

Sugar 7% 

Protein 1.5% 

Salt 0.2% 

Water 87.3% 

When the baby has been fed at the breast 
Adaptation £ or severa l months, pure cow's milk some- 
,...„ times agrees very well, if overfeeding is 

avoided. 

The amount of milk taken every twenty-four hours 
by a healthy infant is usually about 1 34 ounces to the 
pound of the baby's weight. 

A normal infant of twelve pounds would be taking 
between twelve and eighteen ounces of milk in its 
twenty-four hour mixture. 

Budin recommends one-tenth of the body-weight 
daily of milk and reports excellent results in infants 
after the fifth or sixth month, weighing from thirteen 
to fifteen pounds. 



Infant Feeding 335 

Most infants under the age of nine months are more 
or less incapable of digesting cow's milk undiluted. 
If artificial food is resorted to from the start, prac- 
tically all physicians agree that the milk should be 
diluted or otherwise, modified during the first few 
months at least. 

Milk diluted with water is often given, one part of 
milk to two parts of water. This reduces the protein 
to about the amount found in breast milk. 

It is necessary to keep up the proportion of protein, 
as this alone contains the important food element, 
nitrogen. From one-half to three-fourths of an ounce 
of milk-sugar is added to the twenty-four hours' 
supply of food to approximate the seven per cent, found 
in breastmilk. 

The proportion of milk and milk-sugar is gradually 
increased and the water decreased, so that at the end 
of the first or second month the baby gets equal parts 
of milk and water and about an ounce more of milk- 
sugar. This process is continued until, near the end 
of the first year, the child is on whole milk. The 
sugar is lessened as the water is omitted. 

If, after a few months, it is desired to give a baby 
starch in its food, cereal waters made of barley, rice, 
wheat, or oatmeal may be used in place of plain water. 

As cow's milk leaves the stomach more slowly than 
mother's milk, longer intervals between feeding seem 
advisable. When the breast-fed infant receives 
nourishment every two and one-half to three hours, 
an infant given a cow's-milk preparation would be fed 
every three and one-half or four hours. 

The most important thing is to prevent both over- 
feeding and underfeeding as these are often the great- 
est factors in producing infantile disturbances. A 



336 What to Eat and When 

too rapid gain in weight, (from 8 to 12 ounces a week), 
which often occurs in artificially fed infants, is not 
a good sign. 

Milk prepared according to the formula desired by 
the physician can now be secured from milk labora- 
tories in all of our larger cities. However, the milk is 
apt to spoil in transit, and to secure its freshness when 
one is not in or near a large city, it is best to prepare 
it at home. Any intelligent mother or nurse can do 
this very satisfactorily if the physician gives definite 
instructions. 

Its careful preparation is quite as important as the 
correct formula. 

Mineral (calcium) and protein are bone and other 
tissue builders, and it is a significant fact that cow's 
milk contains about twice as much protein and a little 
more than twice as much of the mineral as mother's 
milk, indicating that the growth of the human infant 
is to be slow. The calf requires about four years for 
full growth and the human being twenty-one years. 
Both human and cow's milk, however, contain an 
equal amount of fat, the heat-producing element, as 
Nature intended that the infant should be warm and 
active. 

It seems almost impossible to get milk from the cow 
as clean and free from bacteria as it should be and 
therefore sterilization and pasteurization are resorted 
to almost universally. Various substances such as 
formaldehyd, boric acid, and salicylic acid are used 
by dealers to preserve the milk. These all have a 
deleterious effect on the child. Therefore the safety 
of the child demands that the mother choose a reliable 
dairy. The milk may be analyzed occasionally to 
make sure of its purity. 



Infant Feeding 



337 



A very popular milk preparation and one 
frequently prescribed by physicians is the 
top-milk method as originated by Dr. Holt. 

Top-milk is that at the top of milk bottles in which 
milk has been allowed to stand for five or six hours. 

The cream at the top contains the most fat. For 
instance, in a quart of milk that has been permitted 
to stand, the 

Upper 4 ounces contain 20 per cent, of fat. 



6 


«< < 


16 


" 


n 


11 11 


8 


«< < 


' 12 


"', 


11 


11 11 


" 10 


« < 


' 11 


" 


11 


ii 11 


11 12 


it < 


9 


it 


ii 


11 11 


" 14 


«« « 


8 


11 


ii 


it 11 


16 


11 i 


7 


it 


11 


11 1 


" 20 


11 1 


6 


tt 


11 


11 1 


" 24 


11 1 


5 


11 


11 


11 1 



To remove the top-milk, the first ounce is taken out 
with a spoon and the remainder with a Chapin milk 
dipper which contains one ounce. 

The following formula is considered a good top-milk 
mixture, although it is not supposed to meet the needs 
of all infants and would therefore have to be modified 
in some cases and made stronger in others. 



TOP-MILK MIXTURE 

Top-milk (upper 8 ounces) 2 yi ozs. ; 

Bottom-milk 1 oz. ; 

Limewater yi oz. ; 

Milk-sugar 1 measure (}i oz.) ; 

Water, sufficient to make 8 ozs. 

The sugar is dissolved by boiling it in the quantity 
of water to be used for the mixture. If not perfectly 
clear, it is strained through cheesecloth. 



338 What to Eat and When 

The one thing to be particularly guarded against is 
overloading the stomach with rich food. On account 
of the high percentage of fat, digestive disturbances 
often occur when top-milk is used. Some infants can 
dispose of an abundance of fat from the beginning and 
most of them can after six or nine months, but many 
infants have difficulty in digesting fat. The condition 
called "fat rickets" may exist, though the child may 
seem to thrive and increase in weight. Its flesh, how- 
ever, is not hard and firm as it should be in health. 

The cream from Guernsey and Jersey cows is 
usually too rich for infants and therefore the best milk 
for the baby is that from Holstein or grade cows. 
The mixed milk from various cows is usually best. 

The physician can determine from the stools if the 
fat ratio is too high, in which case it is best to use top- 
milk lower in percentage of fat, and lengthen the feed- 
ing intervals to four hours. 

If the additional expense of certified milk 
M . lk can be met, it is advisable to use it in pre- 

paring the baby's food, as it is reasonably 
constant in its composition and is prepared under the 
most hygienic conditions, in accordance with the 
requirements of the American Association of Medical 
Milk Commissions. 

All utensils used in preparing the baby's milk must 
be absolutely clean. Bacteria develop very quickly 
in milk and, therefore, the bottles, nipples, etc., should 
be kept as germ-free as possible by being boiled daily, 
and the nipples, when not in use, should be kept in a 
solution of boracic acid (one-fourth ounce boracic acid 
to one-half pint of water). 

The artificially fed baby does not usually thrive as 



Infant Feeding 339 

well as the breast-fed infant. It does not gain in 
weight as fast and the teeth are slower in coming. 
The general condition of the baby, and a steady, even 
if slow gain in weight, will indicate whether the food 
is agreeing. 

Every baby, however, is a law unto itself and it 
sometimes requires considerable study to determine 
what is the best food. Even with the utmost care a 
cow's-milk preparation cannot be made identical with 
mother's milk and sometimes an entirely different 
mixture must be resorted to. 

However, no mother should attempt to experiment 
on her baby or permit herself to be misled by the ad- 
vertisements of so-called Baby Foods. It is only 
when these are used in the right proportion and in 
combination with other ingredients that they can be 
suited to the requirements of the infant. 

Malt used in place of milk-sugar or cane- 
sugar will greatly assist the absorption of . Ue 
fat and decrease the tendency to f ermenta- ° .. ca " 
tion and colic. It is being extensively used 
in milk modifications. 

It is best to use the dextrin-maltose preparations 
that do not contain sodium chlorid, as it is rarely 
advisable to add this salt to the infant's food. 

Some physicians have been securing very satis- 
factory results with a preparation containing whey. 
Whey is a thin, watery fluid, looking very much like 
skimmed milk; its caloric value is about 300 per quart, 
9 per ounce, barely one-half that of whole milk. It 
is therefore adapted only to temporary feeding, while 
its low fat content is of great value in cases of fat 
dyspepsia. 



340 What to Eat and When 

To secure the whey, 5 grams (1 teaspoonful) of 
rennet should be used to each quart of milk. The 
mixture must be kept at a temperature of about 100 F. 
until it separates into a liquid and a solid portion. It 
is then strained through cheesecloth. Practically 
all the casein is left on the cloth, the fluid being the 
whey. The curd should be broken up before strain- 
ing, in order to obtain, as nearly as possible, the casein. 
However, about two-thirds of the milk fats remain in 
the curd. The whey, besides the whey proteins, thus 
contains only about one-third of the fats, but nearly 
all of the milk-sugar and salts. The whey still con- 
tains the rennet and, to destroy this, the whey must be 
heated to at least 140 F. for thirty minutes. 

The average composition of whey according to 
Wachenheim is as follows: 

Proteins 0.8 per cent. 

Pats 1.0 " " 

Milk-sugar 4.5 " " 

Salts 0.7 " " 

Water 93.0 " " 

Sometimes sugar is the primary cause of intestinal 
fermentation, due to the concentration of the whey 
and the relative proportions of casein and sugar in the 
mixture. 

According to Finkel stein and Meyer, to prepare a 
food which will combat intestinal fermentation there 
must be: 

A diminution in the quantity of milk-sugar, a diminution of 
the salts through dilution of the whey, and an increase in the 
casein, with varying, and, under certain circumstances, not in- 
considerable amounts of fat. After improvement has begun, an 
easily assimilable and consequently little fermentable carbo- 
hydrate should be added. 



Infant Feeding 341 

They developed a food to meet these requirements 
to which they gave the name of " Eiweissmilch." 
This food is prepared as follows : 

Heat one quart of whole milk to 100 F. ; add four tea- 
spoonfuls of essence of pepsin, and stir. Let the 
mixture stand at 100 F. until the curd has formed, then 
strain. Press the mass of curd through a rather fine 
sieve two or three times by the means of a wooden 
mallet or spoon. Add one pint of water to the curd 
during this process. The mixture should now look 
like milk and the precipitate must be very finely 
divided. Add one pint of buttermilk to this mixture. 

Finkelstein and Meyer used buttermilk in the pre- 
paration of this food : 

(1) Because of the small amount of milk-sugar 
which it contains; 

(2) To obtain the good effects of the lactic acid; 

(3) Because buttermilk can be kept for a longer 
time. 

The composition of this food is : 

Fat 2.5% 

Sugar 1.5% 

Protein 3-0% 

Salts 0.5% 

One quart of this milk contains about 360 calories. 

They call attention to the low caloric value of this 
food and to the necessity of increasing it as soon as 
possible by the addition of dextrin-maltose mixtures. 

They claim that it is worthy of employment in all 
the disturbances of nutrition in infants, which are 
accompanied by diarrhea, of no matter what kind. 
The use of this food has been extended by others to all 



342 What to Eat and When 

sorts of conditions including the feeding of healthy 
infants and the newly born, and good results are 
claimed for it. 

To use a food low in sugar and salts and high in 
protein in the fermentative conditions caused by 
sugar, is rational. In these conditions the substitu- 
tion of the dextrin-maltose mixtures for lactose is 
also good. 

Not all disturbances of nutrition accompanied by 
diarrhea, however, are due to the same cause and 
should not be treated in the same way. No method 
of feeding can be applicable to both the sick and the 
well, nor can all babies be given the same food without 
regard to their individual digestive ability. 

The main principles of this method of treating intes- 
tinal fermentative conditions may be used and, at the 
same time, the disadvantages of a routine food may 
be avoided, by applying the modification of milk 
by the percentage method as given by Moise and 
Talbot. 

To sterilize the milk it should be heated 
® n mg to 212 F., that temperature being main- 
Pasteurizing Gained for ten minutes or longer. 

Many physicians consider pasteurization 
the better process. In this the milk is heated to from 
1 50 to 1 65 F. and kept at that temperature for from 
twenty to thirty minutes. Boiling produces chemical 
changes, such as converting the milk-sugar into cara- 
mel, etc., while pasteurizing does not. 

After pasteurization or sterilization, the milk should 
be quickly cooled to a temperature of 40 F. or lower 
and kept, until used, in bottles corked with non- 
absorbent cotton. 



Infant Feeding 343 

Sterilized or pasteurized milk does not keep as 
well as raw milk probably on account of the change 
in the ferments which destroy bacteria; therefore 
the baby's milk should be pasteurized fresh every 
day. 

Freeman's pasteurizer is a very satisfactory and 
simple device. It consists of a metal pail into which 
is fitted a rack with a separate cylinder for each bottle. 
This holds just enough cold water to surround the 
bottle and keep it from cracking through a sudden 
change of temperature. The pail, containing a cer- 
tain amount of water, is placed on the stove, the water 
is heated to the boiling point, the pail being then re- 
moved. The rack of bottles containing the milk pre- 
paration, with corks of non-absorbent cotton, is placed 
in it and the lid applied. The apparatus is placed 
away from a direct current of air for about forty-five 
minutes. 

As the water in the pail cools, the milk in the bot- 
tles grows warm until both are at the same temper- 
ature. After forty-five minutes, cold water is turned 
into the pail to cool the bottles rapidly. They 
are then kept on ice until again warmed ready for 
use. 

This is the simplest and best way to pasteurize milk 
and the expense is small. 

Improvised apparatus may be used, but it requires 
much more labor and is not as satisfactory. 

All milk should be sterilized or pasteurized before 
being used as a food for infants. 

The following table shows an analysis of milks and 
infant foods helpful in the selection of a food to supply 
deficiencies indicated by a chemical analysis of the 
infant. 



344 



What to Eat and When 



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Modi 


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^^ 




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« 


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Food 
(Milk 

Modifie 


M M O O C t^ 

2 d £ iz^ 






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S-22 gRS 


w 053-^ 


2 4 3 ££" 


W 




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ised 
rand 


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*-$b« 


6 oi c> md cs 




W NH IO -*£ 








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00 On G 10 (=1 ^t- 




W 2 vO<^ 


00 


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00c a 


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<u 53 

O eg O 


£ 


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cj 3 <y <u 


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PhPhUO W<J 



4-> 









Infant Feeding 



345 



The following table from Holt shows at a glance the 
comparative average composition of human and cow's 
milk: 

HUMAN AND COW'S MILK COMPARED 





Human Milk 


Cow's Milk 


Fat 


4% 

7% 
i.5% 

0.2% 

87.30% 


4% 

4.5% 

3-5% 


Sugar 


Proteins 


Salts 


0.75% 


Water 


87.25% 




Total 


IOO.OO% 


100.00% 







Gruels 



Barley, rice, oatmeal, corn meal and soy- 
bean flour are generally used. If the grains 
of the cereals are used, they must be cooked from three 
to four hours. 

As a rule, cereal gruels are made by cooking the 
flour and water for from fifteen to twenty minutes. 
Two ounces to the quart is about as strong as plain 
gruels can be made. 

Dextrinized gruels may be made as high as eight 
ounces to the quart. Four level tablespoonfuls of the 
cereal flour weigh one ounce. 

As the soy bean contains no starch, it does not 
thicken when cooking. 

About 1 level tablespoonful to 3 ounces of soy-bean 
flour are used to the quart. One or 2 tablespoonfuls 
of barley, oat, or wheat gruel may be added before 
cooking to increase the nutritive value. One ounce 
of soy-bean flour, or 2 ounces of barley flour, to 1 quart 
of water makes a very good standard gruel. It con- 



346 What to Eat and When 

tains 2 per cent, protein, 0.6 per cent, fat, 5.1 per cent, 
carbohydrates, giving a food value of ten calories per 
ounce, just one-half the value of milk. In certain 
forms of intestinal trouble in which cow's milk is not 
assimilated, this gruel is valuable used with condensed 
milk. 

Malted gruels are made by adding 1 teaspoonful of 
good malt extract or diastase to a cereal gruel after 
it has been cooled. It should be stirred in very 
thoroughly. 

In artificial feeding "spitting" is usually 
Vomiting . , , f« . ? *. • 

an annoying symptom that does not in- 
dicate anything more serious than an overloaded 
stomach. This condition is usually relieved by 
lengthening the feeding intervals to four hours. 

On the other hand, vomiting usually indicates some- 
thing more serious in a bottle-fed baby, especially if it 
is very persistent. It is usually a sign that cow's 
milk, or the preparation of it, is not agreeing with the 
infant. It also indicates a digestive disturbance that 
should be treated only by the physician, who will 
probably change the formula. 

Occasional vomiting is sometimes due to too rich 
food and too frequent feeding. Lengthening the 
feeding hours and decreasing the amount of fat in 
the mixture will usually eliminate the trouble. 

This is the most common of all of baby's 
troubles. It is often due to too rapid feed- 
ing either from the breast or bottle, and when there is 
a tendency to colic, the feeding should be slower. The 
baby should not be fed while it is suffering from colic, 
even though it seems that the drinking of warm milk 



Infant Feeding 347 

relieves it temporarily. Hot water should be given 
every half-hour or hour until relieved. If the baby 
seems cold, hot water slightly sweetened, and a hot 
bath, should be given at once. A hot- water bottle 
may be placed near it as well. 

In colic there is severe pain in the abdomen, which 
is swollen and hard. Sudden and violent crying is 
usually a symptom of colic, which often ceases very 
suddenly after the emission of gas from the mouth or 
bowels. 

If the baby seems exhausted, the physician should 
be summoned at once, but these suggestions may 
be helpful until the physician arrives. 

When colic is very frequent in a bottle-fed baby, 
the food should be modified. 

The character of the stools depends 
primarily on the composition of the food. . _- 
They are varied according to the digestive 
powers of the infant, and according to the amount and 
rapidity of absorption of the products of digestion. 
The amount of absorption depends to a considerable 
extent on the rapidity with which the contents pass 
through the intestinal tract. 

The nature of the food, of course, influences the 
character of the stools. The examination of the stools 
is of the greatest aid in determining whether or not 
any given food element is properly digested and as- 
similated, and, in many diseased conditions, in telling 
what element is at fault. This, however, can only be 
determined by analysis, but a little information on this 
subject will be of value to the mother or nurse. 

During the first few weeks or months of life, the 



348 What to Eat and When 

breast-fed infant has three or four stools daily. 
These are of about the consistency of thick pea soup 
and are golden yellow. The number of stools grad- 
ually diminishes to two or three in the twenty-four 
hours, and the consistency becomes more salve-like. 

It is not uncommon for thriving breast-fed babies 
to have a large number of stools of diminished con- 
sistency and of a brownish color; in such instances, 
the examination of the breast milk will show that the 
proteins are high. 

It is best not to pay too much attention to the 
stools if the baby is gaining in weight and appears well. 
It is not unusual to find many soft fine curds and 
sometimes mucus in the stools of healthy breast-fed 
babies. 

It is not only unnecessary, but decidedly wrong to 
wean a baby simply because the stools are abnormal, 
if it is doing well in other ways. The breast-fed infant 
will often go weeks or months without a normal stool 
and yet thrive perfectly. On the other hand, if a 
baby has such stools when it is taking cow's milk it is 
a decided evidence of malnutrition. 

Infants that are thriving on cow's milk have, as a 
general rule, fewer movements in the twenty-four 
hours than do breast-fed babies and these movements 
are firmer in consistency. 

Constipation seems to be the chief diffi- 
pa on cu j t y j n ar tiflcial feeding, due usually to 
the poor absorption of fat, or the low percentage neces- 
sary to prevent indigestion. If the constipation is 
not severe, the substitution of oatmeal for barley 
water in the mixture will usually relieve the trouble. 
If the constipation is severe, causing occasional 



Infant Feeding 349 

attacks of colic or straining at stool, it is sometimes 
advisable to give a little higher percentage of fat in 
the mixture, but this should be done very cautiously 
and usually on the advice of the physician. 

If, however, this does not relieve the trouble, the 
best plan is to substitute one of the dextrin-maltose 
mixtures for milk-sugar or cane-sugar. The malt 
itself is not especially laxative but it prevents the 
excessive fermentation which usually occurs when the 
bowels are very costive. 

Two, three, or more green and loose 
evacuations, even though they may con- 
tain whitish particles of undigested fat, are of no great 
significance in the breast-fed infant, but should be 
regarded as danger signals in bottle-fed babies. 

Even a mild attack of diarrhea is usually a symptom 
of fat-dyspepsia which, if taken in time, may usually 
be promptly checked. 

A dose of castor-oil at the beginning of the attack 
may relieve any irritation that might have caused the 
trouble. 

It is best to omit all food for at least twenty-four 
hours. Plain water should be given very freely and 
occasionally barley water, if the baby is hungry. 
After that it is best to start with a mixture low in 
fat. Skimmed milk or boiled milk free from all fat, 
diluted with cereal water, may be given at regular 
intervals. 

Should slight diarrheal attacks continue, or should 
the stools be of a diarrheal character, the wisest plan 
is to substitute a dextrin-maltose mixture for the sugar, 
as malt decidedly favors fat absorption. 

In almost every case of infantile diarrhea it is 



350 What to Eat and When 

advisable to consult the physician, especially if there 
is considerable restlessness and rise in temperature. 

Diarrhea is more frequent in summer among bottle- 
fed babies, as the heat often promotes the growth of 
germs in the milk. Therefore to sterilize or pas- 
teurize milk during the heated months is especially 
necessary. 

A chill, due to insufficient clothing, will sometimes 
cause diarrhea. The abdomen, arms, and legs should 
be kept warm by close-fitting garments of soft wool. 

In treating anemia in infants, as in 
adults, the cause should be removed by 
correcting any errors in diet and treating any other 
physical deficiencies. 

The cause of infantile anemia is an insufficient 
absorption of iron from the food. 

The amount of iron in both human milk and cow's 
milk is small and is insufficient for the needs of the 
growing infant. However, Nature has deposited 
enough iron in the liver of the new-born infant to 
last until it can digest foods which contain iron in 
sufficient amounts. The iron in human milk is 
apparently more easily retained than that in the milk 
of animals. 

The iron content of human milk is dependent on the 
general condition of the mother. It is higher in 
healthy individuals and lower in those under par. 

Anemia in infants is apt to become severe and often 
take on a pernicious form. A prolonged intestinal 
disturbance often brings on anemia, and not infre- 
quently anemia is due to a deficiency of protein in the 
food. 

The treatment consists largely of additions or 



Infant Feeding 351 

changes in the diet, depending on the age of the infant. 
Purees of vegetables that contain much iron, such as 
spinach and carrots, and also fruit juices, are valuable 
and in proper proportions can be added to the diet af- 
ter the age of six months. It is best that the physician 
decide on the advisability of this as it will depend on 
the general condition of the infant. 

Rickets, a chronic impairment of nutri- 
tion, affects not only the bones, but all of 
the tissues of the body, particularly the nervous 
system. Artificial feeding is the chief cause of rickets 
on account of the poor absorption of fats, and often 
because of protein starvation. 

Prepared foods, on account of their large percentage 
of starch and their lack of protein and butter-fat are 
frequently the cause of rickets. 

In addition to its fuel value, milk -fat contains the 
elements which promote growth. 

As previously stated, the infant requires a certain 
percentage of protein, fat, and mineral for the blood 
and tissue building and the growth of the bones. In 
artificial feeding, the preparations given are often 
deficient in these important elements. 

Climate and poor hygienic surroundings sometimes 
cause rickets in breast-fed babies, probably on account 
of the lowered vitality of the mother and the child 
and consequently poor digestion and assimilation, but 
it is most frequently found in babies improperly 
fed. 

Dr. Winfield S. Hall says : 

Fresh milk, appropriately modified and in proper amount, 
together with such other food as is indicated for the age and 



352 What to Eat and When 

weight, is the important point in the treatment of rickets. Fresh 
air, day and night, sunshine and outdoor life, are only next in 
happiness. Cod-liver oil, especially with the addition of phos- 
phorus, is a very valuable addition to the treatment. 

Rickets is a chronic condition, while 

u ^ scurvy is an acute disease. 

This difficulty is considered as entirely due to im- 
proper feeding and therefore must be overcome by a 
change of diet. Recovery is usually very rapid when 
the child is properly fed. 

Pains and tenderness about the joints, particularly 
of the legs, are the usual symptoms, causing the 
baby to cry when it is lifted or moved about. The 
gums sometimes become swollen and bleed. In 
almost every case it is found that infants suffering 
from scurvy have been on a continuous diet of pre- 
pared foods like malted milk, condensed milk, or 
boiled milk which Dr. Hall terms "dead food," 
presumably on account of a lack of the life-giving 
proteins and butter-fat. 

When boiled milk has been used, the change should 
be made to pasteurized milk or raw milk if it can be 
secured clean and fresh. If prepared foods have been 
given, the amount should be greatly decreased and 
replaced by a cow's-milk preparation in which a 
small percentage of the prepared food may be in- 
cluded, or, better still, omitted entirely, if a cow's-milk 
preparation including a good substantial gruel will 
agree. 

In scurvy, orange juice or other fruit juices should 
be given, from I to 4 ounces a day, according to the 
age. Orange juice is particularly valuable, 2 or 3 
teaspoonfuls being given before each feeding. 

A lack of fresh air often aids in producing scurvy. 



Infant Feeding 353 

After the baby has reached the age of 
one year, we often feel that it is not neces- Feeding 
sary to be so careful of its diet. However, g J* , 
the number of deaths due to digestive Year 

disturbances caused by improper feeding 
during the second year is significant. 

After the child is a year old it should be given solid 
food very gradually to develop its digestive functions 
as well as its teeth. A soft-boiled egg or a little beef 
juice may be added to the diet. Until the appearance 
of the anterior molar teeth, however, the child's diet 
should be confined largely to milk. A thin slice of 
buttered bread or a little plain rice or rice pudding, a 
soda cracker or bread crumbs in milk may be given. 
The year-old child may also begin to drink cow's milk. 
One or two glasses a day may be given, until the child 
is at least 13 or 14 years old. 

Good judgment should be used in feeding children, 
as habits and tastes are being formed, and whether 
they are normal or abnormal will depend on the kind 
of food given and when. 

Four meals a day, at regular intervals, and nothing 
but water between these intervals, is considered the 
best plan. 

Dry toast, zwieback, and crackers may be gradually 
added to the diet, also well-cooked cereals, like cream 
of wheat, rice, and oatmeal. The oatmeal should be 
strained the first few months it is given. Very little 
sugar should be added to the cereals, as children very 
quickly cultivate a desire for sweets, rejecting other 
more nourishing foods, and too much sugar is apt to 
disturb the digestion. It is best during the first few 
months that no sugar be added to cereals. 

The amount of whole milk, or milk diluted with 
23 



354 What to Eat and When 

barley or oatmeal gruel, should be limited to one 
quart when the other foods are given. 

Beef juice (from one to two ounces), mutton broth, 
chicken broth, and cereal broths may be given after 
the age of one year; not more than two ounces at first, 
gradually increasing in a few months' time to four 
ounces. This is best given at the beginning of the 
noon feeding. These broths have little nutritive 
value, but usually stimulate the appetite for other 
foods. 

The child must build muscle, bone, and sinew, and 
more protein is required as soon as he begins to walk. 
Milk, eggs, and cereals will furnish this. The heavier 
protein diet is best given at eighteen months to two 
years, in eggs, cooked soft. An egg may be given 
every other day, soft boiled for about two minutes, or 
coddled for four minutes. At the age of two years 
an egg may be given every day. These soft-cooked 
eggs are best when mixed with broken dry toast or 
broken whole wheat or Graham crackers, because if 
dry food is served with them they will be better 
masticated, hence more saliva be mixed with them. 

The habit of thorough mastication should be 
cultivated at this period. 

Oatmeal, thoroughly cooked, and shredded wheat, 
with cream and sugar, ripe fruit, bread and butter, 
milk, soft-cooked eggs (poached or boiled), constitute 
a rational diet at this age. 

Bread is better broken in milk because the chewing 
movements mix the saliva with the milk and smaller 
curds are formed as the milk enters the stomach. 

Custard may after two years be added to the diet, 
also baked or mashed potato, plain boiled macaroni, 
also a little butter on the potato, toast, or bread. 



Infant Feeding 355 

Also after the age of eighteen months, a small 
quantity of very lean meat, like scraped or chopped 
beef or lamb, or finely minced chicken, may be given 
once a day. 

Also well-cooked and mashed vegetables like peas, 
spinach, carrots, and asparagus tips. For the first 
few months these should be strained. 

Some fruit should also be given each day, orange 
juice, apple sauce, or the pulp of stewed prunes; the 
latter especially is valuable when the bowels are 
inclined to be constipated. 

Tea, coffee, and cocoa are absolutely objectionable, 
and before the age of two years no kind of candy 
should be given. 

One of the most important things to teach the child, 
when it is taking foods other than milk, is thorough 
mastication, not only to assist the proper growth of the 
teeth, but to prevent the digestive disturbances that 
invariably occur from the bolting of food, and children 
are especially liable to do this. 

Dry toast and zwieback compel mastication and 
strengthen the gums. These should be given in the 
hand, a piece at mealtime and occasionally between 
meals, if the child seems hungry. The child will then 
gradually get into the habit of chewing other solid 
foods when they are given. 

If the child is hungry between meals, he should be 
fed at a regular period, midway between breakfast 
and luncheon and between luncheon and the evening 
meal. The food should be dry (toast or a dry cracker) 
to induce thorough and slow mastication. 

Many object to "piecing " between meals, but if this 
piecing be done at hours as regular as his meal hour, 
and the food be dry and well masticated, it will 



356 What to Eat and When 

readily digest and will not interfere with his meals. 
The growing child needs more frequent meals than 
the adult. His stomach is not so large, he is active 
in outdoor exercise, and eliminates waste freely. He 
also requires much heat and energy. The active child 
at outdoor play uses almost as much energy as the 
laboring man. 

Many mothers are in doubt as to whether the 
baby's food should be salted. It is necessary to add a 
very little salt to the food for the baby; broths should 
be seasoned slightly and a pinch of salt added to 
potatoes and eggs. Cereals and vegetables are cooked 
in water to which a little salt has been added. 

Experienced observers of children and their ailments 
and diseases have said that more babies are killed 
by overfeeding than by underfeeding. Especially in 
summer, when the child's condition reflects that of the 
mother, too much food will cause indigestion, irritation 
of the stomach, and diarrhea. 

Often the child is fretful because it is too warm or is 
thirsty. It will often be benefited by giving it less 
food and more water. This fretful mind affects the 
child's digestion just as it affects the digestion of the 
mother. 

If a healthy child refuses good, wholesome food 
because it wishes some other than what is offered it, 
it is not hungry and doesn't need the food. 

The growing child craves sweets, but a child should 
not be given candy whenever it wants it during the 
day. Candy or sugar is quickly converted into heat 
and is best eaten immediately following a meal. 
Sugar may be spread on bread for the four o'clock 
lunch or a little candy may be eaten at this time. Two 
or three pieces of candy an inch square are sufficient. 



APPENDIX 

MEASURES AND WEIGHTS 

A few tables of measures may be helpful here be- 
cause accurate measurements are necessary to 
insure success in the preparation of any article of food. 

All dry ingredients, such as flour, meal, powdered 
sugar, etc., should be sifted before measuring. 

The standard measuring cup contains one-half pint 
and is divided into fourths and thirds. 

To measure a cupful or spoonful of dry ingredients, 
fill the cup or spoon and then level off with the back 
of a case-knife. 

In measures of weight the gram is the unit. 

A "heaping cupful" is a level cup with two table- 
spoonfuls added. 

A "scant cupful" is a level cup with two table- 
spoonfuls taken out. 

A "saltspoon" is one-fourth of a level teaspoon. 

To measure butter, lard, and other solid foods, pack 
solidly in spoon or cup and level with a knife. 

TABLE OF MEASURES AND WEIGHTS 1 

4 saltspoons = I teaspoon, tsp. 

3 teaspoons = I tablespoon, tbsp. 

4 tablespoons = }i cup or ]/i gill. 

1 6 tablespoons (dry ingredients) = I cup, c. 

1 Practical Dietetics, Alida Frances Pattee. 
357 



358 What to Eat and When 

12 tablespoons (liquid) = I cup. 

2 gills = I cup. 

2 cups =i pint. 

2 pints = I quart. 

4 quarts = I gallon. 

2 tablespoons butter = I ounce. 

1 tablespoon melted butter = I ounce. 

4 tablespoons flour = I ounce. 

2 tablespoons granulated sugar = I ounce. 

2 tablespoons liquid = I ounce. 

2 tablespoons powdered lime = I ounce. 

i cup of stale bread crumbs =2 ounces. 

i square Baker's unsweetened chocolate = I ounce. 

Juice of one lemon = (about) 3 table- 
spoons 

5 tablespoons liquid =1 wineglassful. 

4 cups of sifted flour =1 pound. 

2 cups of butter (packed solidly) =1 pound. 

2 cups of finely chopped meat (packed 

solidly) =1 pound. 

2 cups of granulated sugar =1 pound. 

2^s cups of powdered sugar =1 pound. 

2% cups brown sugar =1 pound. 

2 */$ cups oatmeal =1 pound. 

4^ cups rolled oats =1 pound. 

9 or 10 eggs =1 pound. 

1 cup of rice — % pound. 

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHTS 1 

20 grains =1 scruple, 3 

3 scruples. =1 drachm, 3 

8 drachms (or 480 grains) =1 ounce, 5 

12 ounces —I pound, lb. 

APOTHECARIES' MEASURES 1 

60 minims (M) =1 fluid drachm, f 3 

8 fluid drachms = 1 fluid ounce, f 5 

16 fluid ounces -I pint, o or pt. 

2 pints =1 quart, qt. 

4 quarts =1 gallon, gal. 

1 Practical Dietetics, Alida Frances Pattee. 



Appendix 359 

APPROXIMATE MEASURES 1 

One teaspoonful equals about I fluid drachm. 

One dessertspoonful equals about 2 fluid drachms. 

One tablespoonful equals about 4 fluid drachms. 

One wineglassful equals about 2 ounces. 

One cup (one-half pint) equals about 8 ounces. 

METRIC MEASURES OF WEIGHT 1 

In measures of weight the gram is the unit. 

1 gram 1.0 gm. 

• I decigram o. 1 gm. 

1 centigram 0.01 gm. 

1 milligram 0.001 gm. 

1 Practical Dietetics, Alida Frances Pattee. 



INDEX 



Absorption of food, 145 
Achlorhydria, 258 
Acne, 295 

Adulteration of foods, 118 
Age, 165 

Diet in, 230 

Affecting digestion, 165 
Albumin, 10 
Albumin water, 309 
Albuminoids, 12 , 56 
Alcohol, 184 
Alkalies, 45 
Almond oil, 25 
Anemia, 37, 245-250 
Appetite, affecting digestion, 

160, 161, 163, 164 
Apples, 47, 49, 51 
Apricots, 47 
Arrowroot, 20 
Asparagus, 43, 44 
Asthma, 282 
Athlete, diet for, 228 

Baking soda, 136 

Balanced diets, 232 

Bananas, 48, 49-50 

Barley, 74 

Barley water, 310 

Beans, 43, 82, 85-86 

Beef, 53, 54 

Beets, 39, 41 

Beverages, 103-109 

Bile, 144 

Biliousness, 267 

Biscuits, 68 

Blackberries, 48 

Blood, affecting digestion, 157 

Bouillons, 57 

Boy or girl, diet for, 226-228 

Bread, 66 



Bread and crackers, 61, 62 

Graham bread 

Rye bread 

Wheat bread 

Graham crackers 

Oatmeal " 

Oyster " 

Soda 
Breakfast foods, 72-80 
Breathing, 3 
Blight's disease, 272 
Brussels sprouts, 43 
Business man, diet for, 224 
Butter, 89 
Buttermilk, 89, 101 



Cabbage, 44 

Caffein, 106 

Calcium, 4, 6, 34, 36, 59 

Calories, 127-129 

Candy, 15-16 

Carbohydrates, 13 

Carbon, 4, 122 

Carbon dioxid, 20 

Carbonaceous foods, 4, 9, 10, 

38-53 
Carbonaceous foodstuffs, 13- 

25 
Carbo-nitrogenous foods, 9, 

61-102 
Carrots, 39, 41 
Casein, 90 
Cassava, 20 

Catarrh of intestines, 264 
Catarrh of stomach, 253 
Celery, 43, 44 
Cells, formation of, 1, 2 
Cellulose, 45 
Cereal coffees, 80-8 1 



36l 



362 



Index 



Cereals, 61-80 
Cheese, 89, 100 
Cherries, 47 
Chicken, 57 
Chlorin, 4 
Chocolate, 108 
Chorea, 291 

Circulation affecting diges- 
tion, 181 
Citrates, 45 
Citric acid, 45 
Citrus fruits, 216 
Clams, 55 
Classification of foods, 38-102 

Carbonaceous, 38-53 
Fruits, 45 

Green vegetables, 42 
Roots and tubers, 38 

Carbo-nitrogenous foods, 61- 
102 
Cereals, 61 
Legumes, 82 
Milk, 89 

Nitrogenous foods, 53-59 
Eggs, 58 
Meat, 53 
Cocoa, 108 
Cod-liver oil, 24 
Coffee, 106-107 
Condiments, 109-III 

Capers 

Catsup 

Cinnamon 

Ginger 

Horseradish 

Mustard 

Pepper 

Salt 
• Spices 

Tabasco sauce 

Worcestershire sauce 
Constipation, 96, 97, 262 
Convalescent, feeding the, 302 
Cooking, 185-199 
Corn, 71 
Cornstarch, 10 
Cottonseed oil, 24 
Crabs, 55 
Cranberries, 48 
Cream, 89 
Cucumbers, 43 



Currants, 48, 52 
Custards, 314, 315 

Dates, 48 
Diabetes, 279 

Diet, in abnormal conditions, 
242-304 

In age, 230, 231 

For athlete, 228 

For boy or girl, 226-228 

For business man, 224 

For laboring man, 229-230 

In sedentary occupation, 
222-224 

In traveling, 213 

Mixed, versus vegetable, 210 
Diets, 216-231 
Digestion, 133-150 

Intestinal, 143 

Salivary, 135 

Stomach, 140 
Dilatation of the stomach, 259 
Diuretic foods, 126 
Dysentery, 265 
Dyspepsia, 250 

Economy in food, 148 
Eczema, 294 
Effervescing waters, 109 
Eggnog, 60, 308 
Egg preparations, 308 
Eggs, 58 m 

Elimination, 2, 130-133 
Energy, 2, 13, 120-129 
Enteritis, 264 
Epithelium, 136 
Exercise, 2 

Exercise and breathing affect- 
ing digestion, 1 71-174 

Fatigue, 174 

Fats, 13, 21-25, 58, 59 

Almond oil 

Butter 

Cod-liver oil 

Cottonseed oil 

Cream 

Meat fat 

Nut oils 

Olive oils 
Figs, 48 



Index 



363 



Fish, 54, 55, 58 
Flaxseed tea, 276 
Flour and meals, 62-65, 73, 74 
Bran 
Corn 
Gluten 
Graham 
Nutri meal 
Oatmeal 
Wheat 

Whole wheat 
Food elements, 3, 8, 9 
Foodstuffs, 8-10 
Frequency of meals affecting 

digestion, 169 
Fruits, 45-53 
Bland, 47 
Dates 
Figs 
Prunes 
Raisins 
Sweet, 47 
Apples 
Bananas 
Blackberries 
Blueberries 
Grapes 
Peaches 
Pears 
Plums 
Raspberries 
Fruit juices, 305 
Fruit sugar (levulose), 14, 15 

Gallstones, 269 
Gastritis, 253 
Gelatinoids, 12, 56 
Glucose, 10, 15, 16, 14 
Gluten, 5, 10 
Glycerin, 22 
Glycogen, 16, 21, 151 
Gooseberries, 47 
Gout, 277 
Grapefruit, 46 
Grape juice, 307 
Grapes, 48, 50 
Greens, 43 
Gruels, 314, 317 
Gum-chewing, 139 

Ham, 54 

Heat and energy, 3, 120-129 



Hives, 293 
Honey, 10, 15 

Hydrochloric acid, 34, 35, 46, 
140 

Hydrogen, 4 
Hyperchlorhydria, 257 
Hypochlorhydria,.257 

Ice-cream, 115 

Improperly balanced diet, 221 

Indigestion, 250 

Mental effect on, 135 

Nervous, 252 
Infant feeding, 320-356 
Influence of mind, 177-178 
Insufficient diet, effect of, vii 
Intestinal disorders, 262 
Intestinal indigestion, 143 
Intestines, work of, 141-148 
Invalids, foods for, 305 
Iron, 4, 37, 59 
Itching, 295 

Jellies, 313, 314 
Junket, 102, 314 

Kidneys, derangements of, 271 
Affecting digestion, 155, 160 
Kumyss, 98 

Laboring man, diet for, 229- 
230 

Lactose, 15 
Leanness, 298 
Legumes, 63, 82-87 

Beans 

Lentils 

Peanuts 

Peas 
Lemonade, 60, 108, 306 
Lemons, 46, 48 
Lentils, 82 
Lettuce, 43 
Levulose, 15 
Lime, 7 
Lime water, 96 
Limes, 46 
Liquid foods, 307 
Liver, derangements of, 266 

Affecting digestion, 151-152, 

159 
Work of, 151-152 



364 



Index 



Lobster, 55, 58 

Lungs, 153, 154, 155, 160 

Macaroni, 62, 69, 203 

Magnesium, 4, 34, 45, 46, 59 

Malates,,45 

Malic acid, 45 

Maltose, 15, 143 

Maple sugar, 15 

Meat broths, 312 

Meat juices, 311 

Metabolism, 1, 130-133 

Milk, 308 

Albuminized, 309 

And milk products, 89-102 

Malted, 92-93 
Mind, influence of, 177 
Mineral salts, 6, 34-37 

Waters, 30 
Mollusks, 55 
Mould, 68 
Mouth, 138 
Mulberries, 48 
Muscles, work of, 152, 160 
Mussels, 58 
Mustard, no 
Mutton, 54 

Nasal passages, 138 
Nephritis, 272 

Nerves, work of, 153, 154, 160 
Neuralgia, 289 
Neurasthenia, 287 
Nitrogen, 4, 5, 6, 10, II 
Nitrogenous foods, 9, 10, 53-60 

Foodstuffs, 10-13 
Nut oil, 24 
Nuts, 87-88 

Oats, 61 
Obesity, 299 
Olive oil, 24, 25 
Onions, 39, 40 
Orangeade, 60, 306 
Oranges, 45, 46, 48 
Organs and conditions affect- 
ing digestion, 151-184 

Age, 165 

Appetite, 160 

Blood, 157 

Circulation, 181 



Exercise and breathing, 171 

Fatigue, 174 

Frequency of meals, 169 

Influence of mind, 177 

Intestines, 156 

Kidneys, 155 

Liver, 151 

Lungs, 153 

Muscles, 152 

Nerves, 153, 154 

Regularity of eating, 168 

Season and climate, 164 

Skin, 155 

Sleep, 177 

Tobacco and alcohol, 184 

Ventilation, 174 
Overeating, effect of, vi 
Oxidation, 124, 125 
Oxygen, 4 
Oysters, 55, 58 

Pancreatic juices, 20, 34 

Pancreatin, 99, 223 

Parsnips, 38, 39, 41 

Pastry, 194 

Peaches, 47 

Peanuts, 83 

Pears, 48 

Peas, 43, 82, 85, 86 

Pectin, 45 

Pepsin, 140 

Peristalsis, 142 

Phosphates, II 

Phosphorus, 4, 36, 59 

Pineapples, 48, 52 

Plums, 47 

Poisoning from food, 113-118 

Potassium, 4, 34, 36, 46, 51, 

59 
Potatoes, 39-40 
Poultry, 54 
Predigested foods, 78 
Preservation of foods, 111-113 
Prolapsus of stomach, 259 
Protein, 4, 6, 9, 10, II, 53-60 
Prunes, 48 
Pruritus, 295 
Ptyalin, 136 
Purposes of food, 1-3 

Produce heat and energy 

Rebuild tissue 



Index 



365 



Pylorus, 142 
Pyorrhea, 138 

Quinces, 52 

Raisins, 48 

Raspberries, 48 

Recipes for invalids and semi- 
invalids, 305 

Regularity of eating affect- 
ing digestion, 168 

Rennin or rennet, 90, 140, 141 

Repair of waste, 130-133 

Rheumatism, 297 

Rhubarb, 43, 44 

Rice, 61, 69 

Rye, 61 

Saccharin, 15 
Sago, 10, 20 

Soup, 311 
Saliva, 20 

Affecting digestion, 158 
Salivary digestion, 135 
Salts, 6, 34-37 

Calcium (lime), 34, 36 

Iron, 34 

Magnesium, 34 

Potassium, 36 

Sodium, 34, 35, 36 
Sausage, 54 

Season and climate, 164 
Sedentary occupation, diet in, 

223-224 
Shrimps, 55 
Skin, work of, 155, 156 
Skin diseases, 292 
Sleep, 177 
Soap, 22 
Sodium carbonate (baking 

soda), 136 
Sodium chlorid (salt), 4, 34, 
„ 35, 36, 46, 136 
Souffles, 318 
Soups, 313 
Spaghetti, 69 
Spinach, 43 
Starch, 20-21, 136 
Steapsin, 144 
Stomach, 158 



Strawberries, 48 

Sucrose, 14, 15 

Sugar, 10, 14, 19 

Cane sugar (sucrose), 14, 15 
Fruit sugar (levulose), 14, 

15 

Sugar of grapes or corn 

(glucose), 15, 16 
Sugar of malt (maltose), 15 
Sugar of milk (lactose), 15, 
16 

Sulphates, 11 

Sulphur, 4, 11, 36, 59 

Syrups, 10 

Sweat-baths, 2 

Sweetbreads, 54 



Tables of use in making up 

balanced diets, 232 
Tannin, 49, 104 
Tapioca, 10, 20 
Tartaric acid, 45 
Tartrates, 45 
Tea, 104 
Terrapin, 55 
Theobromin, 108 
Tired, meaning of, 13 1 
Toasts, 318 
Tobacco, 184 
Tomatoes, 43, 44 
Traveling, diet in, 213 
Trypsin, 141 
Tuberculosis, 283 
Turnips, 39, 41 



Ulcer of the stomach, 260 
Uremia, 275 
Uric acid, 46 

Excess of, 276 
Urticaria, 293 



Veal, 54 

Vegetable marrow, 43 

Vegetables, green, 43-45 

Ventilation, 174 

Villi, 146 

Vitamins, 70 

Volatile oil, 40, 41 



366 



Index 



Water, 25-34 
Watercress, 43 
Watermelons, 48 
Wheat, 6i, 63 
Whey, 101 



Wheys, 307 
Whortleberries, 48 



Yeast, 67 












oo V 



- .. . \L* 













BrKHrSS 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



111 



D002bD37405 



